Culture, Demographics, and Social Inequality Flashcards
Culture
refers to a shared way of life, including beliefs and practices that a social group shares
Symbolic culture
consists of symbols that are recognized by. people of the same culture
Material culture
involves physical objects or artifacts (clothing, hairstyle, food, design of homes)
Non-material culture
specific to social thoughts and ideas, such as values
Popular culture
used. to describe. features of. culture that appeal to the masses, often those communicated through mass media
High culture
describes those features often limited. to the consumption of the elite
Values
can. be defined as a culture’s standard for evaluating what is good or bad
Belief
convictions or principles. that people hold
Norms
visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society
Cultural Diffusion
transfer of elements of culture from one social group to another
Cultural compentence
effective interactions between people from different cultures
Cultural transmission
process through which this information is spread across generations, or the mechanisms of learning
Social change
societies experience a change in state. Can be subtle, like development of new linguistic phrases or radical like revolution
Cultural lag
cultures take time to catch up with technological innovations; social problems and conflicts are caused by this lag
Culture shock
personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life. due to immigration, a visit to a new country, or a move between social environments
Reverse culture shock
involves same experiences, but upon an individual’s return to their initial environment
Assimilation
the process by which a person or a group’s culture comes to resemble those of another group
Multiculturalism
the preservation of various cultures or cultural identities within a single unified society
Ethonocentrism
the belief in the inherent superiority of ones own ethnic group or culture
Cultural Relativism
the principle that an individual human’s beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual’s own culture
Population growth rate
the rate of population change in a specified time period, reported as a percentage of the initial population
Overpopulation
there are more people than can be sustained
Carrying capacity
total possible population that can be supported with relevant resources. and. without significant negative effects in a given area
Population projections
estimates of future populations made from mathematical extrapolations of previous data
Crude birth rate
annual number of births per 1,000 people in a population
Crude death rate
annual number of deaths per 1,000 persons in a population
Rate of population change
difference between the crude birth rate and crude death rate
General fertility rate
annual number of births per 1,000 women in a population
Total fertility rate
predicts the total number of births per single woman in a population with the assumption that the woman experiences the current record age-specific fertility rates and reaches the end of her reproductive life
Replacement fertility rate
fertility rate at which the population will remain balanced
Sub-replacement fertility
indicates that the birth rate is less than the death rate, thus population size will not be sustained
Population lag effect
refers to the fact that changes in total fertility rates are often not. reflected in the birth rate for several generations
Mortality
refers to the death rate in a population
Morbidity
refers to the nature and extend of disease in a population
Prevalence rate
measures. the number of individuals experiencing a disease
Incidence rate
measures the number of new cases of a disease
Infant mortality rate
annual number of deaths per 1,000 infants under one year of age
Life expectancy
the number of years that an individual at a given age can expect to live at present mortality rates
Migration
geographical movement of individuals, families or other small or large groups of people
Nomadism
non-permanent travel for leisure, polgrimage, or seasonal reasons
External migration
migration to another nation, motivations for external migration are often economic or political in nature
Internal migration
migration to another region of the same nation
Voluntary migration
result of internal factors (personal decision)
Involuntary/forced migration
result of external factors that pose a threat to the individual in their environment and are often a form of social control such as ethnic cleansing
Settlers
migrate to unsettled areas
Refugees
migrate to settled areas as a result of displacement
Immigration
entering a new area
Emigration
leaving an old area
Colonization
involves migration to settled areas in which dominance is exerted over the foreign state
Push Factors
things that are unattractive about an area and push people to leave, often economic, political, religious
Pull Factors
are attractive about an area and pull people there, often positive opportunities for economic, political, or religious freedom and success
Urbanization
growth of urban areas, tied to industrialization
Rural flights
migration from rural areas to urban areas
Suburbanization
populations growth on the fringes of urban areas as people move from urban areas to suburban areas
Urban sprawl
migration of people from urban areas to otherwise remote areas
urban blight
negative effect of urban sprawl, occurs when less functioning areas of large cities degrade as a result of urban decline
Gentrification
renovation of urban areas in a process of urban renewal. Often specific to the introduction of wealthier residents to the cities who then help to restore the existing infrastructure, which alters the region’s demographics and economics
Demographic Transition Model
societies transition from high birth rate and high death rates to low birth and death rates as a result of a country’s development from pre-industrial to industrial framework due to economic and social changes
Pre-industrial stage
high birth and death rates
Industrial stage
high birth rates but death rates fall, leading to population growth
Post-industrial stage
low birth and death rates; population stabilizes
Malthusian Theory
unchecked population growth would quickly exceed carrying capacity, leading to overpopulation and catastrophes
Positive checks
raise death rate like disease, disasters, hunger, and wars
Preventative checks
lower birth rate, like abstinence, birth control, late marriage and same sex relationships
Malthusian catastrophe
occurs when the means of sustinence are not enough to support the population resulting in the population reduction through actual or predicted famine
Demograpy
study of human population dynamics including size, structure and distribution of a population and changes in population over time due to birth, death and migration
Minorities
demographic groups. that recieve differential treatment through process of prejudice and discrimination due to shared characteristics, considered inferior
Dominant groups
those with social power to assign labels
Age
position between birth and death is measured through age
Age cohorts
example of statistical cohorts in which a group of subjects share the characteristics of age
Generations
group of people born in the same period
Population aging
occurs when there is a disproportionate amount of older people in a population
Ageism
prejudice or discrimination. against a person based on age
Sex
biological characteristic. that is assigned at birth and permanent in most cases. Physical/physiological differences. Cateogories are male (XY) female (XX) and intersex (born with ambiguous sexual traits)
Gender
social characteristic that is based on behavioural role expectations. Influenced by both nature and nurture
Sexism
prejudice or discrimination against a person based on gender or sex, often against women
Transgendered
gender identities that are inconsistent with their biological sex divisions. May become transexual, if making permanent changes to their bodies
Race
description of a distinct social group based on certain shared characteristics (physical characteristics)
Ethnicity
shared cultural characteristics
Racism
prejudice and actions that discriminate based on rase, or hold that one rase is inferior to another
Racialization or ethnicization
social process in which the dominant group ascribe racial or ethnic identities, percieved or real, to groups that do not otherwise relate to the labels
Sexual orientation
describes the direction of a person’s romantic or sexual attraction or behaviour
Heterosexual
orientation towards the opposite gender or sex
Homosexual
orientation towards the same gender or sex
Bisexual
the orientation towards both genders or sexes
Pansexual
attracted to people irrespective of gender or sex
Asexuality
lack of sexual attraction
Kinsey Scale
assigns a number from 0 (exclusively heterosexual) to 6 (exlusively homosexual) that places each individual along this continum
Heterosexism
prejudice or discrimination against a person based on their sexual orientation towards the same sex (homophobic attitutes)
Heteronormative beliefs
enforce strict gender roles and involve prejudice and discrimination against non-heterosexual individuals
4 periods of immigration
1) seventeenth and eighteenth centuries - english colonists migrate to US
2) mid nineteenth century - most migrants from northern Europe
3) early twentieth century - most migrants came from southern and eastern Europe (ex. Jewish refugee in WWII)
4) late twentieth century to present - majority have been from Asia and Latin America
Globalization
process of increasing interdependence of societies and connections between people across the world
Outsourcing
contracting of third parties for specific operations
Non-government organizations
organizations without an official government affiliation with the intention of contributing. to the lessening of global issues
Relative deprivation
conscious experience of individuals or. groups that do not have the resources needed for the social experiences and services that are seen as appropriate to their social position
Social Stratification
refers to the way that people are categorized in society
Caste system
describes a closed stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are. born into
Class system
considers both social variables and individual initiative; groups together people of similar wealth, income, education…, but the classes. are open (people can strive to reach higher classes)
Meritocracy
uses merit, or personal effort to establish social standings
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
defined in terms of power (ability to get others to do something) property, and prestige (reputation in society)
Social Mobility
ability to move up or down within the social stratification system. involves physical, social and cultural capital
Upward mobility
refers to an increase in social class
Downward mobility
decrease in social class
Intergenerational mobility
occurs when there is an increase or decrease in social class between parents and children
Intragenerational mobility
describes the differences in social class between different members of the same generation
Social reproduction
occurs when social inequality is transmitted from one generation to the next
Cultural capital
non-financial social assets that promote social mobility
Social capital
potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility
Privelige
set of advantages available exclusively to a person or group
Residential segregation
physical separation of groups into different areas, typically along the lines of race, ethnicity, or SES
Environmental Injustice
low SES and minority groups tend to live in areas where environmental hazards and toxins are high
Food desert
area in highly populated lower-income urban environments, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to obtain
Prejudice
involves pre-concieved judgement towards people based on their group membership
Discrimination
biased treatment of an individual based on group membership
Social segregation
tendency of people from the same social groups to interact with each other and have minimal contact with individuals from other social groups
Relative poverty
inability to meet the average standard of living within a society
Absolute poverty
inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to health care
Marginal poverty
due to lack of stable employment
Structural poverty
due to underlying and pervasive effects of the society’s institutions
Social epidemiology
study of the distribution of health and disease across a population
Gender bias
when men and women recieve different treatment
Health care disparities
population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes and quality of health care across different social groups
