Socioemotional Development – Attachment, Emotions, and Social Relationships

Question 1

Attachment refers to “the strong, affectionate tie that humans have with special people in their lives, which leads them to _______when interacting with those people and to be _________by their nearness in times of stress” (Berk, 2013, p. 428).

Answer 1

feel pleasure
comforted

Question 2

What is Bowlby’s ethological theory?

Answer 2

Another early theory is Bowlby’s (1969) ethological theory which proposes that infants and their mothers are biologically predisposed to form an attachment to help ensure the survival of the infant: The innate attachment-related behaviors of infants include sucking, crying, smiling, and cooing, and these behaviors elicit the mother’s attention and care and keep her in close proximity to the infant.

Question 3

Bowlby’s theory also distinguishes between four stages of attachment that occur during the first two years of life. What are they?
.

Answer 3

preattachment,
attachment-in-the-making,
clear-cut attachment, and
the formation of reciprocal relationships

Question 4

According to Bowlby, an infant’s attachment relationships during these stages lead to the development of _________ that consist of beliefs about the self, others, and the self in relationship to others and that affect future relationships.

Answer 4

internal working models

Question 5

What are the 3 signs of attachment?

Answer 5

Social referencing
Separation Anxiety
Stranger Anxiety

Question 6

When do signs of attachment first become apparent?

Answer 6

Signs of attachment first become apparent at about six months of age.

Question 7

What is social referencing?

Answer 7

It is a sign of attachment? At six to eight months, infants begin to exhibit social referencing and look to caregivers to determine how to act in ambiguous and unfamiliar situations.

Question 8

What is separation anxiety?

Answer 8

It is a sign of attachment. Separation anxiety also begins at about six to eight months, is most intense from 14 to 18 months, and thereafter gradually declines.

Question 9

What is stranger anxiety?

Answer 9

Stranger anxiety begins at about eight to ten months and begins to decline at about age two.

Question 10

Patterns of Attachment: Ainsworth and her colleagues (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978) used _______to study attachment in babies one to two years of age
It consists of brief episodes in which __________and reunited with their mothers several times.

Answer 10

“strange situation”
babies are separated

Question 11

Ainsworth’s research on attachment identified four attachment patterns:

Answer 11

Secure attachment
Insecure/resistant/ambivalent attachment
insecure/avoidant attachment
disorganized/disoriented attachment

Question 12

What is secure attachment look like in babies?

Answer 12

A baby with secure attachment explores the room when his/her mother is present, may or may not cry when she leaves, actively seeks contact with her when she returns, and prefers her to a stranger. Mothers of these babies are sensitive and responsive.

Question 13

What does insecure/resistant (ambivalent) attachment look like?

Answer 13

(a) A baby with insecure/resistant (ambivalent) attachment stays close to his/her mother initially, is distressed when she leaves, may be angry and resist her attempts at contact when she returns, and is fearful of a stranger even when his/her mother is present. Mothers of these children are inconsistent in their caregiving.

Question 14

What does insecure/avoidant attachment look like?

Answer 14

A baby with insecure/avoidant attachment seems indifferent toward his/her mother, exhibits little distress when she leaves, avoids her when she returns, and reacts to his/her mother and to a stranger in a similar way. Mothers of these children are either rejecting or intrusive and over-stimulating

Question 15

What does disorganized/disoriented attachment look like?

Answer 15

A baby with disorganized/disoriented attachment is fearful of his/her mother and often has a dazed or confused facial expression. A baby with this pattern may or may not be distressed when his/her mother leaves and exhibits disorganized, confused behavior when she returns and when with a stranger. The majority of these babies have been maltreated by their caregivers.

Question 16

What has the research on Adult Attachment Interview found?

Answer 16

Research using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) has found a relationship between the early attachment experiences of parents and the attachment patterns of their children (van Ijzendoorn, 1997)

Question 17

How did adults score with the AAI who were classified as autonomous score?

Answer 17

Adults who are classified as autonomous on the AAI provided coherent descriptions of their childhood relationships with their parents. Their children usually have secure attachment.

Question 18

How did adults with the the AAI score who are categorized as preoccupied score?

Answer 18

Adults who are categorized as preoccupied exhibited angry, confused, or passive preoccupation toward a parent when describing their childhood relationships. Their children usually have a resistant attachment pattern.

Question 19

How did adult who are classified as dismissing score?

Answer 19

Adults who are classified as dismissing provided positive descriptions of their childhood relationships, but their descriptions were not supported or were contradicted by their actual memories. Their children often have an avoidant attachment pattern.

Question 20

How did adult who are classified as dismissing on the AAI score?

Answer 20

Adults who are classified as dismissing provided positive descriptions of their childhood relationships, but their descriptions were not supported or were contradicted by their actual memories. Their children often have an avoidant attachment pattern.

Question 21

How did adult who are classified as dismissing score on the AAI test?

Answer 21

Adults who are classified as dismissing provided positive descriptions of their childhood relationships, but their descriptions were not supported or were contradicted by their actual memories. Their children often have an avoidant attachment pattern.

Question 22

What has studies found in terms of investigating the relationship between SES and childhood attachment?

Answer 22

Studies investigating the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and childhood attachment have found that low-SES children are more likely than those from other SES backgrounds to be insecurely attached to their caregivers. There’s evidence that this relationship is actually due to risk factors associated with low SES (rather than low SES itself) such as poor parental education, parental drug use, and father absence. Note, however, that “secure attachment occurs in spite of poverty when parenting quality is good” (Bergin & Bergin, 2015, p. 245).

Question 23

What has research found investigating adult attachment?

Answer 23

It has found that the dismissing attachment pattern is overrepresented among low-SES mothers, with the overrepresentation being greatest for low-SES adolescent mothers (van IJzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2010).

Question 24

Are there any cultural differences in attachment results in terms of secure attachment?

Answer 24

No. Researchers interested in the relationship between culture and childhood attachment have found that secure attachment is the most common pattern in both Western and non-Western cultures and that variations in attachment are related more to differences in caregiving quality than cultural differences (Bergin & Bergin, 2015; Cole, Cole, & Lightfoot, 2005).

Question 25

Are there cultural differences in the relative rates of insecure attachment classifications?

Answer 25

Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis of studies conducted in eight countries found that the insecure/avoidant pattern was most prevalent in the United States, Germany, and other individualistic cultures, while the insecure/resistant pattern was most prevalent in Japan, Israel, and other collectivist cultures.

Question 26

Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis of studies conducted in eight countries found that the ____________pattern was most prevalent in the United States, Germany, and other individualistic cultures, while the __________pattern was most prevalent in Japan, Israel, and other collectivist cultures.

Answer 26

insecure/avoidant insecure/resistant

Question 27

They have found that patterns are similar across different groups (Brandell & Ringel, 2007). Finally, there is evidence that adult attachment patterns are __________ (van IJzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2010).

Answer 27

cross-culturally universal

Question 28

arly Separation from Primary Caregivers: Much of the research on the effects of the separation of infants from their primary caregivers has looked at the impact of hospitalization and found that the types and severity of the effects are related to the infant’s ____.

Answer 28

Age

Question 29

For example, in a frequently cited study, Schaffer and Callender (1959) observed the behaviors of healthy infants 12 months of age and younger who were hospitalized for elective surgery. They found that, for babies 7 months of age and younger, separation from their mothers caused ________. These babies quickly adjusted to the hospital and hospital staff and accepted changes in routines, and they acted similarly at home before and after hospitalization. . “

Answer 29

strange situation”

Question 30

In contrast, babies who were over 7 months of age at the time of hospitalization exhibited a great deal of stranger anxiety in the hospital and were not soothed by nurses. Also, when they returned home, these infants exhibited a number of disturbances: They clung excessively to their mothers and cried vigorously when separated from them, and many experienced sleep and appetite disturbances. Based on these results, Schaffer and Callender concluded that “___________, when separation from the mother is experienced as a traumatic event, does not commence until after the middle of the first year of life, and that consequently in those cases where there is a choice, hospitalization should be arranged to occur before the crucial age is reached” (p. 528).

Answer 30

the critical period

Question 31

Early Emotions: Research has found that children’s emotions emerge in a predictable order (Lewis, 2000). From birth to about 18 months of age children exhibit

Answer 31

primary emotion

Question 32

Shortly after birth they exhibit contentment, interest, and distress which expand at about six months to include joy, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, and fear. Thereafter, children exhibit ______________ as a result of the development of self-awarenes.

Answer 32

secondary (self-conscious) emotions

Question 33

At ____________, they begin to exhibit envy, empathy, and embarrassment.

Answer 33

18 to 24 months

Question 34

At ______months babies feel shame, guilt, and pride.

Answer 34

30 to 36 months

Question 35

Recognition of facial expressions of emotion is also known as _____________and refers to the ability to in facial expressions.

Answer 35

facial emotion recognition and facial expression recognition

Question 36

Researchers have studied how facial emotion recognition develops during infancy using (a) ____________that are based on the assumption that “increases or decreases in infants’ visual attention can be used to infer infants’ emotion abilities and knowledge” (Ruba & Pollak, 2020, p. 507) and (b) ____________paradigms that provide information about infants’ neural responses to facial expressions of emotion.

Answer 36

looking-time paradigms event-related-potential (ERP)

Question 37

Some studies have found _________that, soon after birth infants can discriminate between some facial expressions (e.g., happy and sad), but other studies have found that infants do not reliably discriminate between facial expressions until they are 5 to 7 months of age (e.g., Leppanen & Nelson, 2013; Safar & Moulson, 2017).

Answer 37

Mixed results

Question 38

The research has also found that infants begin to categorize facial expressions of emotion at about _______, which means they are able to recognize the _______________(e.g., happiness) on the faces of multiple models even when there are differences in irrelevant characteristics such as the age or gender of the models or the intensity of their expressions.

Answer 38

7 months of age similarity of an emotion expression

Question 39

A consistent finding of the research is that infants show a shift in their preferences for particular emotion expressions by ___months of age: Prior to this age, they exhibit increased attention to happy facial expressions but this changes at about 7 months to increased attention to fearful facial expressions. One explanation for this ____________ is that fearful expressions are unfamiliar to younger infants, which also helps explain _____________at about 12 months of age when infants have had more exposure to fearful expressions (Xie et al., 2019). Finally, between 10 and 18 months of age, infants show _______________understanding of the facial expressions.

Answer 39

7 “fear bias” why this bias declines affective meaning of

Question 40

For example, Reschke et al. (2017) used the ______________(a type of looking-time paradigm) to assess the ability of 12-month-olds to match facial expressions with eliciting events and found that the infants expected a person to express happiness (versus anger) after receiving a toy and sadness or anger (versus happiness) after fighting over a toy.

Answer 40

violation-of-expectation paradigm

Question 41

Researchers interested in emotions in adulthood have investigated __________in the quality of emotions and emotional memory and the effects of _________on behavior.

Answer 41

age-related changes guilt and shame

Question 42

Age-Related Changes in Positive and Negative Emotions: Longitudinal and cross-sectional research has found that negative emotions decrease over time from the early ___________, while positive emotions remain stable or increase during this period (e.g., Charles & Carstensen, 2010). 20s to the mid-60s

Answer 42

20s to the mid-60s

Question 43

Research on emotions after the mid-60s has produced __________________, with some studies finding negative emotions either increasing, decreasing, or remaining stable after this age. One explanation for this inconsistency is that emotions are affected by _______________Kunzmann, Little, and Smith (2000) initially found that negative emotions remained stable and positive emotions decreased with age for individuals 70 to 100 years of age. However, when they controlled for functional health impairments, the results were more consistent with changes that occur prior to the mid-60s: They found that, for their sample, increasing age was associated with decreasing negative emotions and increasing positive emotions.

Answer 43

less consistent results health status

Question 44

3. Age-Related Changes in Emotional Memory: Researchers interested in age-related changes in emotional memory have identified a ____________, which is the tendency of older adults to prefer, attend to, and remember more positive information than younger adults do. For example, Mather and Carstensen (2005) found that, when older adults were asked to recall positive and negative memories from the past, they recalled more memories associated with positive emotions. Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) is one of the theories that’s used to explain the positivity effect. It predicts that older adults tend to be motivated more than younger adults by _____________ and, therefore, are more likely to focus on and recall positive information more than negative information.

Answer 44

positivity effect emotional gratification

Question 45

Effects of Shame and Guilt: The self-conscious emotions include shame and guilt. As noted by Tangney and Tracy (2012), “feelings of shame and guilt typically arise from the recognition of one’s own attributes and behaviors … [and when they’re] due to another person’s behavior, that person is almost invariably someone with whom we are closely affiliated or identified” (p. 446). The focus of much of the research has been on the role of shame and guilt in _____________.

Answer 45

inhibiting transgressions

Question 46

However, a recent study by Lickel and his colleagues (2014) investigated the role of shame and guilt on the motivation of young adults to change as a person. In their study, participants were asked to write about an event that made them feel shame or guilt and then to answer several questions about the motivations engendered by that event. Results indicted that recalling both guilt- and shame-eliciting events induced the motivation to change the self, but the motivation was stronger for ______. In addition, shame was more likely to induce the motivation to __________from the event, while guilt was more likely to induce the motivation to ________for or otherwise repair the aftermath of the event.

Answer 46

Shame distance oneself apologize

Question 47

Aggression: One way to categorize aggression is in terms of its function as either instrumental or hostile. ______________ is also referred to as proactive aggression, and its function is to fulfill a need or desire (e.g., to get attention or obtain a desired object).

Answer 47

Instrumental aggression

Question 48

__________is driven by anger and is done to hurt someone. When it is provoked,______ aggression is also known as_______ aggression. As described by Berk (2018), instrumental and hostile aggression can take one of three forms: ________ aggression (e.g., hitting, kicking, or destroying another person’s property), _________aggression (e.g., threats of physical harm or name-calling), or ________ aggression (damaging another person’s social relationships through social exclusion or spreading of malicious gossip).

Answer 48

hostile Hostile aggression reactive physical verbal relational

Question 49

Studies have shown that aggression changes in predictable ways during early childhood: __________is usually evident by 1 year of age, peaks around 2 years of age, and continues to be the dominant form of aggression until about 4 years of age when ___________ begin to become more common (e.g., Bergin & Bergin, 2016; Kuther, 2019; Shaffer & Kipp, 2010).

Answer 49

Physical instrumental aggression verbal and relational hostile aggression

Question 50

Causes of Aggression: Explanations for aggressive behavior in children include the following: Research by Patterson and his colleagues (Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992) led to their conclusion that families of highly aggressive boys are characterized by escalating ____________and poor parental __________ of children’s activities.

Answer 50

coercive interactions monitoring

Question 51

The_______________ proposes that (a) parents learn escalate they can, at least temporarily, stop their children’s misbehavior with threats and physical punishment; (b) children learn aggressive behaviors from their parents and that they can stop their parents’ behaviors by ______________; and (c) aggressive parent-child interactions _________over time. These investigators also found that parents are most likely to use coercive discipline when the family is experiencing a high level of stress, the child has a _______, and the parents have certain personality characteristics. They developed their ________________(PMTO) to help stop the coercive family cycle. It involves providing parents with therapy to help them deal better with stress and teaching them effective parenting skills.

Answer 51

coercive family interaction model ignoring them or having a temper tantrum escalate difficult temperament Parent Management Training – Oregon Model

Question 52

Crick and Dodge’s (1994) _____________ describes a person’s response to provocation as involving six steps and proposes that aggressive behavior in children is due to deficiencies and biases at each step. The six steps are ___________________

Answer 52

social information processing model Encoding of cues Interpretation of cues Clarification of goals Response search Response decision Behavioral enactment

Question 53

Crick and Dodge’s (1994) _____________ describes a person’s response to provocation as involving six steps and proposes that aggressive behavior in children is due to deficiencies and biases at each step. The six steps are ___________________

Answer 53

social information processing model Encoding of cues Interpretation of cues Clarification of goals Response search Response decision Behavioral enactment

Question 54

Explain Crick and Dodge’s Encoding of cues as it relates to provocation

Answer 54

Aggressive children tend to focus on aspects of the provoker’s behavior that suggest a hostile intention and ignore other aspects.

Question 55

Explain Crick and Dodge’s Interpretation of cues as it relates to provocation

Answer 55

Aggressive children have a hostile attribution bias that causes them to automatically assume that a provoker had a hostile intent in ambiguous social situations.

Question 56

Explain Crick and Dodge’s Clarification of goals as it relates to provocation

Answer 56

Aggressive children identify retaliation as their goal.

Question 57

Explain Crick and Dodge’s Response search as it relates to provocation

Answer 57

Aggressive children identify few options for responding, and most of them involve aggressive behavior.

Question 58

Explain Crick and Dodge’s Response decision as it relates to provocation

Answer 58

Aggressive children choose an aggressive response because they believe it will have favorable outcomes.

Question 59

Explain Crick and Dodge’s Behavioral enactment as it relates to provocation

Answer 59

Aggressive children act aggressively.

Question 60

Violent Videogames and Aggression: Violent videogames have been established as a contributor to aggressive and violent behavior, especially for___________. For example, the APA Task Force on Media Violence (2015) conducted a meta-analysis of the research and found that the studies have found “a consistent relation between violent video game use and increases in aggressive behavior, aggressive cognitions, and aggressive affect and decreases in prosocial behavior, empathy, and sensitivity to aggression” (p. 11). The Task Force concluded that the greater the exposure to violent videogames, the higher the level of aggression and that the relationship between violent videogames and aggression remains when known risk factors for aggression _______________are statistically controlled.

Answer 60

adolescents and young adults (e.g., antisocial personality traits, parental conflict, child and parent depression)

Question 61

The Task Force also pointed out that research that included children (especially those under 10 years of age), ________________________groups is limited and, therefore, caution is necessary when drawing conclusions about the effects of violent videogames on the aggressive behaviors of members of these populations. females, and members of ethnic minority

Question 62

____________has been found useful for improving parent-child interactions and reducing children’s aggression and other externalizing behavior problems (e.g., Mingebach, Kamp-Becker, Christiansen, & Weber, 2018).

Answer 62

Parent training

Question 63

However, there’s evidence that Parent training effectiveness for reducing children’s aggression is moderated by several factors including the initial severity of the child’s symptoms and the family’s socioeconomic status. For example, a meta-analysis of the research by Leijten, Raaijmakers, Castro, and Matthys (2013) found that parent training programs were equally effective for economically disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged families immediately posttreatment when the child’s initial problems were _______, but disadvantaged families benefited less than advantaged families when the child’s initial symptoms were ______. In addition, at the one-year follow-up, disadvantaged families had poorer outcomes than advantaged families regardless of the initial severity of the child’s symptoms.

Answer 63

Severe mild

Question 64

Research has shown that attitudes reflecting a “culture of honor” are more prevalent in the southern than the northern United States and are characterized by concerns about maintaining one’s status and reputation and a willingness to respond to threats to one’s honor with aggressive and violent behavior. The greater acceptance of violence in southern states has been attributed to several factors including

Answer 64

warmer temperatures and greater poverty in the South the tradition of slavery a southern economy in the 17th and 18th centuries that was based on herding.

Question 65

With regard to the latter, Nisbett (1993) argues that herding (a) “predisposes people to a violent stand toward their fellows … because their livelihoods can be lost in an instant by the theft of their herds” and (b) cultivates “a posture of extreme vigilance toward any act that might be perceived as threatening … [a tendency to] respond with sufficient force to frighten the offender and the community into recognizing that they are not to be trifled with” (p. 442). Nisbett points out that the persistence of culture-of-honor norms in the South is evident in current laws and social policies (e.g., looser gun control laws and less restrictive self-defense statutes) and a higher rate of homicides that arise from arguments involving threats to honor. Research has also found that, compared to their Northern counterparts, White Southern men react to an insult with ___________________________and are more likely to endorse the use of violence in response to threats to themselves, family members, or property and criticize men who do not do so (Cohen & Nisbett, 1994; Nisbett, 1993).

Answer 65

higher levels of anger and larger increases in cortisol and testosterone

Question 66

Researchers interested in ___________during childhood have investigated childhood play, friendships in childhood and adolescence, and peer status.

Answer 66

social relationships

Question 67

Some of the earliest studies on childhood play were conducted by Parten (1932) who classified the play of preschool children as ___________

Answer 67

nonsocial and social

Question 68

___________includes unoccupied play in which the child engages in aimless movements and activities, solitary play in which the child plays alone, and onlooker play in which the child watches other children play and talks to them but doesn’t participate.

Answer 68

Nonsocial play

Question 69

___________includes parallel play in which the child plays next to other children and shares toys but doesn’t interact with them

Answer 69

Social play

Question 70

__________in which the child interacts with other children but without shared goals

Answer 70

Associative play

Question 71

____________in which the child interacts with other children to achieve a common goal.

Answer 71

cooperative play

Question 72

___________is the tendency of children to choose playmates of the same gender and has been attributed to a combination of biological, cognitive, and cultural factors. Studies have found that most children begin to prefer same-sex playmates between _________, with girls showing this preference earlier than boys (Pasterski, Golombok, & Hines, 2011). Gender segregation tends to occur even when adults encourage cross-gender play and it intensifies during early and middle childhood and then remains stable until adolescence (Rudman & Glick, 2021).

Answer 72

Gender segregation 2 and 3 years of age

Question 73

The types of play children engage in is somewhat age-related, with ____________occurring at all ages but _____________play declining with increasing age and ________________play increasing with increasing age (Sigelman & Rider, 2012).

Answer 73

unoccupied & onlooker play solitary and parallel play associative and cooperative

Question 74

Friendships in Childhood and Adolescence: According to Selman (1980), developmental changes in the understanding of friendships are related to changes in social perspective-taking and can be described in terms of five overlapping levels:

Answer 74

Level 0/Momentary Playmates – “I Want It My Way?” (about 3 to 6 years of age) Level 1/One-Way Assistance – “What’s In It For Me?” (about 5 to 9 years of age) Level 2/Two-Way, Fair Weather Cooperation – “By The Rules” (about 7 to 12 years of age) Level 3/Intimate, Mutually Shared Relationships – “Caring and Sharing” (8 to 15 years of age) Level 4/Mature Friendship – “Friends Through Thick and Thin” (12 years of age)

Question 75

Level 0: 3 to 6 years of age:

Answer 75

Momentary Playmates:I Want It My Way?” During this stage, children say their friends are children they currently play with or who live nearby.

Question 76

Level 1: 5 to 9 years of age One-Way Assistance:“What’s In It For Me?”

Answer 76

Children in this stage recognize that friendships extend beyond their current activities and say friends are children who do nice things for them. However, they don’t think about what they contribute to the friendship.

Question 77

Level 2: 7 to 12 years of age

Answer 77

Two-Way, “Fair Weather Cooperation”; “By The Rules” Children in this stage are concerned about fairness and reciprocity in friendships. They believe if they do something nice for a friend, the friend should do something nice for them – and, if that doesn’t happen, the friendship is likely to end.

Question 78

Level 3: (8 to 15 years of age):

Answer 78

Intimate, Mutually Shared Relationships – “Caring and Sharing” During this stage, children and adolescents share secrets and do things for each other because they genuinely care about their friends. They’re likely to feel betrayed when a best friend chooses to spend time with someone else.

Question 79

Level 4:

Answer 79

Mature Friendship – “Friends Through Thick and Thin” (12 years of age and older) Children and adolescents in this stage value emotional closeness with friends. They accept differences between themselves and their friends and are less likely to feel threatened when a close friend has other friendships.

Question 80

In terms of Peer Status: Children who are unpopular with their peers can be described as __________(Berk, 2010).

Answer 80

rejected or neglected

Question 81

_____________tend to be hyperactive and impulsive, are often in conflict with their peers, have trouble regulating their emotions, and misinterpret the intentions of others as hostile.

Answer 81

Rejected-aggressive children

Question 82

______________tend to be submissive and passive, have a high degree of social anxiety, and have negative expectations about how they’ll be treated by others.

Answer 82

Rejected-withdrawn children

Question 83

____________have low rates of interaction with peers, rarely engage in disruptive behaviors, and are usually well-adjusted.

Answer 83

Neglected children

Question 84

____________have low rates of interaction with peers, rarely engage in disruptive behaviors, and are usually well-adjusted.

Answer 84

Neglected children

Question 85

Research on outcomes for unpopular children has found that they tend to be worse for children who are ________________. These children not only express greater _________and have lower __________but are also less likely than neglected children to experience an improvement in their peer status when they change schools or social groups (Coie & Kupersmidt, 1983).

Answer 85

actively rejected by their peers loneliness self-esteem

Question 86

Social Relationships in Adulthood: Carstensen’s (1993) ______________ proposes that the motivation for friendships is related to people’s perceptions about the amount of time left in life.

Answer 86

socioemotional selectivity theory

Question 87

People who view time as unlimited are future-oriented, and _______________is their primary motivation for friendships. knowledge-seeking

Answer 87

These individuals prefer friends who provide them with information that might be useful in the future.

Question 88

People who view time as limited are present-oriented, and _____________is their primary motivation. They are more selective about who they have as friends and prefer friendships that evoke positive feelings and avoid those that evoke negative feelings.

Answer 88

emotional closeness

Question 89

Older adults are more likely than younger adults to perceive time as limited and prefer ___________, but there are exceptions. For instance, younger adults who have a life-threatening illness tend to view time as limited and prefer emotionally close friends (Carstensen & Fredrickson, 1998).

Answer 89

emotionally close friends

Question 90

Carstensen and her colleagues (Carstensen, Gottman, & Levenson, 1995) have also investigated __________________ in happily and unhappily married couples by comparing the communication styles of older dissatisfied married couples, older satisfied married couples, middle-aged dissatisfied married couples, and middle-aged satisfied married couples while the couples discussed problematic issues in their relationships. Perhaps contrary to what might be expected, the results of their research indicated that unhappily married older couples were less likely than other couples to engage in ______________– i.e., less likely to respond to their partners’ expressions of neutral affect with expressions of anger, disgust, or other negative emotions. The authors propose that this difference may be due to the fact that unhappily married older couples have learned to use strategies that limit the experience of negative emotions

Answer 90

emotion regulation “negative start-up”