Socialism and Communism (other deck)

Question 1

Socialism

Answer 1

= A doctrine that calls for public ownership or control of property and resources. Everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, thus everyone is entitled to a share in it

Origins
- Socialism developed in the 19th century from the interaction between enlightenment thinking and emerging issues:

1) The acceptance of capitalism
2) Rising inequalities bred by industrialisation

• Socialism as a term first used by utopian socialists Fourier and Owen
• Both aimed to apply the ideals of the enlightenment to the problem of rising wealth and social inequality
• Liberalism failed to respond to the changes of the industrial revolution
• Socialists argued for a new approach, that would make enlightenment principles more achievable in an industrialised society

– Hobsbawn =
“For an individual living in a slum…. any notion of freedom or independence seemed utterly distant.”

– Robert Owen =
- Human nature is malleable
- The conditions of capitalism have created lives of misery, unworthy of rational beings
- Hence, social engineering is both possible and desirable

– Charles Fourier =
- Advocated independent communities based on communal ownership and production involving the equal distribution of resources and a culture marked by tolerance and permissiveness

Human nature
- Optimistic view of human nature
- Humans are naturally cooperative, generous, and altruistic
- Humans should naturally seek solidarity, fraternity, and comradeship as they are social animals
- Humans are malleable, therefore, forged by social conditions
- Thus, people can only be understood in terms of the social groups they belong to; membership of a community offers humans true freedom and fulfilment
– John Donne = “No man is an island”
– Marx = “Man is directly a natural being”
- However, socialism concedes that mankind’s true nature has been diluted by time and circumstance
- As a result, socialists are more optimistic about how it could be
- They view this as human nature in their eyes is malleable or ‘plastic’, rather than permanently fixed at birth

The state
- All socialists agree that a strong state is essential for the foreseeable future.
- Socialists believe that without a strong state it will be impossible to bring about a fairer more egalitarian society
- In short - medium length term, it would be difficult to bring about a redistribution of wealth and greater social justice without a state that was expansive and dirigiste (seeking to direct a society’s economy)
- Some socialists go as far as saying the state will ‘wither away’ - a blissful moment in human evolution to which Marx described as the ‘end of history’
- Socialists also argue that there needs to be a certain type of state, therefore they reject the following types:

1. Monarchical state
2. Theocratic state
3. Aristocratic state

• Instead, they advocate a state where political and economy power have been redistributed to reflect the principle of equality and an ‘empowerment of ‘the people’
• Whilst agreeing a strong state is required, they also need an extensive one; socialists will therefore contest that any reduction of state power is likely to produce increased social and economic inequality

Society
- According to socialism, any understanding of human nature requires a clear understanding of society
- Socialism focuses on an individual’s social environment: the individual’s society
- Socialists view individuals as the product of the society they were born into
- Socialists view society as an independent construct, formed by impersonal forces and thereafter shaping individuals inside it
- Socialists are sceptical of the individual being able to determine their own fate
- Instead, they view society as the main reason for individuals not fulfilling their potential
- Yet for socialists, this is no cause for despair
- Socialists argue that if only society can be improved there will be a corresponding improvement to the prospect of the individual

Economy
- Most socialists call some form of intervention or planning in economic affairs because they maintain that the capitalist profit driven free markets cannot allocate wealth and resources unfairly
- Marxists and socialists advocate replacing capitalism with a centrally planned economy based on common ownership of the means of production
- Socialists recognise that an economic system based upon private property and capitalism can be hugely problematic for the following two reasons:

1) The natural condition of mankind in regard to cooperation and fraternity are seriously threatened by both private property and capitalism, which are said to encourage competitiveness, ruthless egotism and pursuit of self-interest
2) Free-market capitalism generates huge inequalities of outcome, which for socialists, of course, are incompatible with equality of opportunity, self determination and social justice

• Socialists seek to rectify problems caused by capitalism by championing an economy that provides for greater workers’ control in employment, and redistribution of wealth and resources
• Socialism places an emphasis to the redistributionist doctrine, what Tony Benn described = ‘politics of robin hood’
• These redistributionist policies are based on two broad principles:

1) Emphatic rejection of Laissez-Faire
- An economy where low taxation and little state interference will be one where unfairness and social injustices become exacerbated
2) Greater collectivism
- The perspective on the economy claims to focus on the needs of society as a whole rather than on the abilities of a few enterprising individual

Question 2

Key Concepts (Socialism)

Answer 2

1) Revolution
= A fundamental systematic change. Often a brief and dramatic period of upheaval.
The importance of revolution can be seen through:

[I] The Dialectic
– Friedrich Hegel claimed that history progressed upon a series of logical events based upon the dialectic.
- The dialectic is a process that drives social change
– Hegelian philosophy outlines that social change occurs via an internal conflict
- A thesis always contains an antithesis that eventually instigates change
- Consequently, new affairs emerge called a synthesis
- One becomes aware of the synthesis when one accepts that an earlier contradiction was only an apparent contradiction
- This view is central to the Marxist conception of the world with its emphasis upon class conflict
- Marxists believe that society would reach the end of the dialectic in which the consciousness of the individual would match that of society
- (The end of history)

[II] History
- The dynamic that drives history is the struggle between contending social groups (exploiter vs the exploited)
- Each period is defined by its own mode of production and class system
- Each economic structure has passed; replaced through revolution
- Marx identifies this through four stages of human development:
1) Primitive communism
– Forwarded by Marx and Engels
- Traditional hunters and gatherers resided within egalitarian social relations and common ownership with no defined or hierarchical structure or capital
2) Slavery (master and slave)
3) Feudal society (landowner and peasant)
- Towards the end of the feudal societies, international trade created a move from production by craftsmen to larger factories, and industrial production
4) Capitalism (capitalist and worker)
- Capitalism can be seen through the following features:
* Creation of Bourgeoisie: The owners of the new means of production
- This group accumulated huge wealth and overthrew existing feudal systems which no longer reflected the material conditions of society
* The Creation of the Proletariat
- Forced to sell their labour to survive. this concentrated wealth in the hands of the bourgeoisie
- In this way capitalism is a precondition for socialism as it creates the proletariat
– Alterations to Marx and Engels:
- Marx predicted social revolution within the mode of production and this revolution would be led by the proletariat
– Lenin was concerned that this could only occur in societies where capitalism and the proletariat were well developed
– Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg stated that less developed countries would have to endure decades of oppressive rule before socialism could arise
– Lenin promoted accelerated revolutionary socialism designed to ensure communism could pre-empt capitalism
– Lenin argued that revolution for pre-industrial nations should be the cause and not the effect
- The revolution in early capitalist societies would prevent the masses from developing any sympathy for capitalist values (false consciousness)
- The revolutions of China 1949, Vietnam 1945 and Cuba 1959 do not align with Marx idea of a proletarian revolution but instead promote a peasant led revolution

2) Gradualism
= Achievement of socialism through gradual improvements rather than revolution. Change is brought about through legal and peaceful reform
- Evolutionary socialism promotes the change should happen gradually:
[I] Social democracy
- Seeks to persuade people as to the merits of incremental steps
– e.g. they argue paying workers a decent wage helps to raise productivity and reduce the number of hours lost due to staff absences
[II] Democratic socialism
– Beatrice Webb argued that capitalism could be gradually reformed via parliament to achieve a socialist state
- She suggested state management by socialist elite to ensure social justice
- Gradualist position is also reflected in organisations such as the Fabian Society – “for the right moment you must wait”
– Fabianism places prominence upon strategies such as comprehensive education and municipal socialism

3) Class conflict
[I] Marxist
- Marxists traditionally emphasise the fundamental role of class politics based on the economic division between capital and labour
- A person’s class position is economically determined by their relationship to the means of production
- Marxism maintains that conflict is inevitable between the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’
- Under the capitalist system, the state becomes an instrument of class rule, with the bourgeoisie using institutions and agencies to maintain their dominance
- This process leads to a proletarian revolution that overthrows the capitalist state and the bourgeoisie
- The state will only wither away once the workers’ gains have been consolidated and a classless society emerges

[II] Social Democrats
- Define social class in more fluid terms
- Objectives can be achieved through targeted state intervention to narrow class distinctions, aided by a common consensus
- The state does not represent an instrument of oppressive class rule but rather provides the welfare and redistribution schemes by which class inequalities can be reduced

4) Social justice
- Involves those policies and measures designed to ensure a more equitable distribution of life chances within society
- Social justice seeks to ensure the best possible allocation of resources based upon a fairness
- The concept of assigns certain responsibilities towards the various institutions of society
- All socialists believe that the state can be used to create a more egalitarian society
- An equitable distribution of wealth is linked with the goal of social justice
- However, the extent to which the state and other institutions should intervene within the economy differs

[I] Social Democrats and Social Justice
- Social democrats stipulate that capitalism can and should be humanised through a mixed economy
- The creation of a society built around social justice and equality does not therefore require a mass programme of nationalisation and state control
– Policies include a national minimum wage, health and safety legislation, full employment, and anti-discrimination laws
– Attlee’s 1945 People’s Budget exemplifies such policy (NHS 1946, Children Act 1948 – Childcare)
– For Crossland, equality is the goal of social democracy

[II] Communism and Social Justice
- Marxists advocate common ownership
- All people owning the means of production breeds equality
- Democratic socialists would argue that this should be provided by state, Communists would suggest that the withering of the state will bring greater equality as human nature is inherently altruistic

5) Equality
= A fundamental value essential to ensuring social cohesion, justice and freedom
- Social equality is a situation in which all people within a community have the same status in certain respects and rights regarding legal, social and political activity
- The pursuit of social equality or equality of outcome is, arguably, the fundamental value of socialism
- Socialists argue that equality can be justified in several ways:

[I] Social equality ensures fairness
- Economic inequality, according to the socialist view, is due to the structural inequalities in a capitalist society, rather than innate differences of ability among people
- Some socialists tend to reject equality of opportunity because as it justifies unequal treatment and a competitive environment
- This reflects a view of human nature that emphasises people are born with the potential to be equal
- Other socialists maintain that, since it is part of human nature to have different abilities, inequality in the form of differential rewards is inevitable to some extent
- These socialists tend to endorse an egalitarian approach to ensure that people are treated less unequally

[II] Social equality reinforces collectivism
- Humans are more likely to co-exist harmoniously if they share the same socio-economic conditions
- Modern Sweden has high levels of social equality based on extensive wealth redistribution and social welfare
- Socialists argue that such measures have made a major contribution to the stability and economic output of Swedish society
- Societies with great divides see the disadvantaged sections revolt in protest to their conditions, as happened in Russia in 1917 and Mexico in 1910–20
- Social equality is a means of satisfying basic human needs
Given that all people’s basic needs are the same (such as food, friendship and shelter), socialists call for the equal, or more equal, distribution of wealth and resources to promote human fulfilment and realise human potential
- In terms of the economy, most socialists agree that the free market, driven by the profit motive, cannot allocate wealth and resources fairly to all members of society
- Only the redistributive mechanism of the state can provide for all
– “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs” – Marx

6) Common humanity/community
- Socialists see humans as social creatures with a tendency towards co-operation, sociability and rationality; humans naturally prefer to co-operate with, rather than compete
- They argue that humans are naturally inclined to work together for the common good and that co-operative effort produces the best results for society
- Co-operation also reinforces and reflects the socialist idea of a common humanity, in both moral and economic terms.

[I] Economic
- Competition sets one person against another, a process that encourages people to reject or disregard their common humanity, generating social divides, conflict, and alienation.

[II] Moral
- People who co-operate form connections based on understanding, respect, and mutual support.
- Human motivation by a moral view of people’s role in society
- People should work hard to improve their community because they have a sense of responsibility for other humans, particularly the least fortunate
- The moral incentive to improve society rests on the acceptance of a common humanity
- For the economy to function properly, material rewards should be linked to moral incentives
– e.g. co-operative effort to boost economic growth not only increases living standards for the working population but also provides the funds (through taxation) to finance welfare measures

Question 3

Social Democracy

Answer 3

Summary
- The existence of socialist policy and ideas within a democratic system, a middle way
- Social democracy is a political ideology that seeks to achieve greater social and economic equality within the framework of a capitalist system
- It advocates for a mixed economy, with a combination of private enterprise and government intervention, to ensure that basic needs such as healthcare, education, and housing are met for all citizens

Origins
- Social democracy emerged as a response to the access says unregulated capitalism the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the goal of creating a more humane and equitable society
- It prioritises social justice, universal access to healthcare and education, and strong social safety nets
- Social democracy also emphasised his democratic participation, with the belief that system should have a say in how their government operates and what policies were implemented

Human Nature
– Anthony Crossland = human nature has a powerful sense of fairness and an objection to inequality
- Equality is the true objective of socialism

State
- The reduction of state power is likely to produce an increase in social and economic inequality
- Social democrats do believe that the existing state can still serve a purpose to effect radical socialist change
– Attlee’s government created the welfare state under the existing state apparatus
– In his ‘The Future of Socialism’ (1956) he assigned the state the responsibility for producing a greater equality of both opportunity and of outcome

Equality
- The primary form of equality under social democracy is social equality.
– Crosland asserts that all have an equal worth regardless of social background.
- A welfare state based upon universal benefits and a system of comprehensive education all help to achieve a more equal society
- Social democracy doesn’t go as far as complete equality.
– Instead, Crosland outlines that “extra responsibility and exceptional talent require and deserve a differential reward”
– “weaken.. consistent feelings of envy and inferiority”

Society
- The creation of a society built around social justice and equality does not require mass state control
- Social democracy is chiefly concerned with the just or fair distribution of wealth in society. Thus, social justice is a defining value
– Crosland argues that for socialism social equality is the fundamental aim and not the ownership of the means of production.
- Society is increasingly complicated, altered by the emergence of the new social groups of ‘meritocratic’ managers and ‘classless’ technocrats.
- He sought to reconcile the class distinction between equality of outcome and of opportunity.
- He acknowledged that a pure meritocratic society of equal opportunities was insufficient; citizens would only reach the starting gate if they were unencumbered by material inequalities

Economy
- Social democrats advocate an economic system based primarily upon private ownership can be civilized via an extensive set of left-wing policies
- This ensures that the owners of capital cannot exploit those who work for them, particularly when the power of the trade unions is strengthened via collective bargaining

[I] Social Justice and the Economy
– The National Minimum Wage Act 1998 (Tony Blair - New Labour - sets out the minimum amount of pay a worker is entitled to per hour, based on age - set out as a legal requirement for all employers to abide by)

[II] State Intervention within the economy:
– Crosland argued post-WW2, society was ‘less binary’, less polarised between employers and employees, and more complex than Marx could have ever imagined
– Crosland argued that ‘new classes’ such as ‘managers and ‘technocrats’ began to surface
- With this in mind, Crosland argued the need for a mixed economy with limited public ownership and a Keynesian approach to capitalism which will finance the greater public spending necessary to secure equity within society
- A mixed economy is where some resources are owned by the public sector and some are owned by the private sector
– (Attlee’d nationalisation of key strategic industries yet leaving the lesser or non-vital industry to the private sector)
- Under a mixed economy market forces are made to work for the good of the people. This includes full employment, low inflation, and environmentally sustainable growth
– Crosland argues that the reformed capitalist system would no longer vulnerable to ‘booms’ and ‘busts’ but instead could be relied upon to finance a richer, fairer society

Question 4

Economic Socialism

Answer 4

Attitudes towards Capitalism
- Socialism in an economic sense is often defined as being opposed to Capitalism or Anti-Capitalist.
- Capitalism is an economic and political system in which property and resources are owned privately, rather than through public ownership (i.e. by the state), with the intention of generating profit

Ownership of the means of production and the superstructure
- The Superstructure = Marxist theory of socioeconomics
- In Marxist theory society consists of two parts:
[I] The Economic Base
- Underpinned by ideas such as private property, money, supply and demand
[II] The ideological Superstructure
- Made up of culture, political, law, ideology, social consciousness and religion

• Marx argued that the ideological superstructure grows out of the base (Economics) and reflects the ruling class’ interests
• As such, the ideological superstructure justifies how the base operates and defends the power of the elite
• In this sense, within the superstructure the economic factors are the driving force for changing events
• The economic base (underpinned by ideas such as private property, money, supply and demand) forms and shapes this super structure, which is made up of culture, politics, laws, religion, ideology and social consciousness
• Neither the base nor the superstructure is natural They are both social creations
• The means of production are the foundation of society

Ethical Socialism
= A theoretical basis for socialism dependent on moral or religious beliefs rather than scientific analysis
- Human nature can be improved by the overhaul or reform of capitalism
- Our behaviour is moulded by societal forces
- It is therefore imperative to replace an unethical, amoral system with a socially equitable alternative
- In doing so, socialism rejects the conservative argument that human nature is immutable and cannot be altered
- Socialism is built around the assumption that man is a social animal
- As such, we seek to realise our goals on a collective basis and thereby co-operate with others to serve the common good
- All socialists agree that industries should be owned or regulated by the state to serve the broader public interest
- There is also no natural order or hierarchy
- Inequality within a capitalist society is used to justify the way things are, but these are merely as transient as any other social construct

Private property and common ownership
= The former entails ownership of property by individuals and companies; the basis of capitalism
= Public ownership occurs when an organisation is run by the government for the benefit of all members of society
- Often referred to as nationalisation.

[I] Property and public ownership promotes collectivism
- As wealth is created by communal endeavour, it should be owned collectively
– Proudhon = “All property is theft”
- Collectivist theorists, such as Robert Owens, claim that society is greater than the sum of its parts
- It’s therefore necessary and desirable to construct a system that facilitates shared goals and common humanity
–To Owens, collectivist local communities would be ideal
- Common ownership is thus a reflection of the collectivist society and allows social gains to be made greater as the efforts and skillsets of all individuals are complimentary, thus beneficial
– The original Clause 4 of the Labour Party’s (1901) Constitution made a firm commitment to common ownership
– This would ensure that the workers received the “full fruits of their labour” and “the most equitable distribution of resources”
– Their Clause 4 commitment rarely played a role with the exception of the Attlee government

[II] Rejection of Private Property
- Socialists reject private property as it encourages materialism, generates social conflict, and fosters the false belief of wealth-based fulfilment
- This is related to the socialist view of human nature
- Socialists argue human nature is malleable; moulded by social conditions, primarily the experiences and circumstances of one’s life
- As individuals currently reside in a capitalist society, the pursuit of private property and materialism can be expected, however this can be combated
- Evolutionary Socialists would aim to mitigate rampant inequality in property rights through systems such as Belgium’s ‘3-6-9’ system which restricts the eviction power of landlords
- Moreover, private property threatens the natural condition of mankind of cooperation and fraternity

Class Conflict and Capitalism
– In the Communist Manifesto (1848), Marx and Engels proclaim that “the history of all hitherto societies is the history of class conflict”
- They believe that the social classes can be distinguished between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
– According to the socialist analysis of the economic system, the bourgeoisie have every incentive to give the workers the poorest pay and conditions to maximise profit. If an employee refuses, they can replaced by the reserve army of labour.
- Under the exploitative conditions of the capitalist economic system, the surplus value of the proletariat is appropriated by the bourgeoisie
- Marxists claim that this leads to an acute sense of alienation because workers do not benefit from the products being made
- They become de-personalised from their own work and the fruits of their labour are stolen by the bourgeoisie
- The interests of these two social classes are therefore in conflict.
- Socialism also entails a rejection of the liberal assumption that the individual is somehow free to exchange their labour
- The worker is little more than a cog in a capitalist machine.
– Engels argued that as capitalism operates via fluctuations in the economic cycle, it must have a permanent reserve army of labour. In the modern era, the reserve army of labour originates not just from the younger generation but those in third world countries
– In an era of globalisation, multi-national companies can very easily outsource to those corners of the world where labour is cheap, working conditions are harsh and union membership is supressed

Collectivism
= informs other socialist values including equality, welfare in common ownership
= refers to the idea the humans can achieve their political, social and economic objectives more effectively through collective endeavour
= implies that society can be transformed by collective endeavour
- For socialists this is a way of achieving an ideal society.

• Socialists advocate collectivism for two key reasons:
  [a] Morality
• The interests of the group should take priority over individual self-interest
  [b] Practical economic terms
• Collectivism utilises the capabilities of society, avoiding the wastefulness and limited impact of competitive individualism
• This emphasis on collectivism is rooted in the socialist view of human nature. the socialist view on human nature – humans are social animals
• It follows that humans have the capacity for collective action and can work together to achieve their goals. they should be tied together by fraternity
• Human nature is moulded by social conditions, primarily the experiences and circumstances of life
• People can only be defined or understood in terms of the social groups they belong to
• Membership of a community or society offers humans true freedom and fulfilment
• To promote collectivism, most socialists call for state intervention and planning
• This ensures the distribution of goods and services is not left to free market forces
• The state must grow to aid

Different Approaches to Collectivism within Socialist Thought:
[I] Marxists
- Marxists and state socialists advocate collective action through a centralised state the organise production and distribution
- USSR under Stalin in the 1930s took control of the entire economy with his 5 point plan

[II] Moderate Socialists
- They accept some degree of free market capitalism in the economy whilst pursuing collectivism in a more limited way
– Attlee in 1945 nationalised all the key strategy industries (steel, coal, trains, water) but left many of the other aspects of the economy private

Redistribution of Wealth
- Wealth redistribution is key to economic socialist ideals
- This can largely be seen through socialist’s emphasis on equality
- Socialists favour a more equal distribution of wealth and income within society

[I] Social democrats
– Crosland asserts that all of us have an equal worth regardless of social background
- A more even distribution of wealth via progressive taxation, a welfare state based upon universal benefits and a system of comprehensive education all help to achieve a more equal society

[II] Democratic Socialists
- The state should play a more prominent role within the management of the economy
- Only by a significant level of state involvement can we truly achieve an egalitarian society.
- Democratic socialists reject the social democratic argument that the forces of capitalism can be tamed and therefore humanised.
- Capitalism incompatible with the goal of equality

[III] Marxists
- Fundamentalist position
- Each stage of history has been characterised by class conflict, and it is only via the creation of a communist society that this conflict can end
- We must take a great leap forward to create a classless society based upon communism
- Crucially, the path towards socialism is unavailable under a parliamentary system dominated by the vested interests of the ruling class
– Pickett and Wilkinson (2010) = equality benefits all members of society in terms of higher life expectancy, greater levels of happiness, lower levels of poverty and lower crime rates
- (Notably the social democratic approach of Scandinavian countries)

Question 5

Political Socialism

Answer 5

Equality
= A fundamental value essential to ensuring social cohesion, justice and freedom.
= Social equality is a situation in which all people within a community have the same status in certain respects and rights regarding legal, social and political activity
- The pursuit of social equality or equality of outcome is, arguably, the fundamental value of socialism.
- Socialists argue that equality can be justified in several ways:

[I] Social equality ensures fairness
- Economic inequality, according to the socialist view, is due to the structural inequalities in a capitalist society, rather than innate differences of ability among people
- Some socialists tend to reject equality of opportunity because as it justifies unequal treatment and a competitive environment
- This reflects a view of human nature that emphasises people are born with the potential to be equal
- Other socialists maintain that, since it is part of human nature to have different abilities, inequality in the form of differential rewards is inevitable to some extent
- These socialists tend to endorse an egalitarian approach to ensure that people are treated less unequally

[II] Social equality reinforces collectivism
- Humans are more likely to co-exist harmoniously if they share the same socio-economic conditions
- Modern Sweden has high levels of social equality based on extensive wealth redistribution and social welfare
- Socialists argue that such measures have made a major contribution to the stability and economic output of Swedish society
- Societies with great divides see the disadvantaged sections revolt in protest to their conditions
– Russia in 1917 and Mexico in 1910–20

[III] Social equality is a means of satisfying basic human needs
- Given that all people’s basic needs are the same (such as food, friendship and shelter), socialists call for the equal, or more equal, distribution of wealth and resources to promote human fulfilment and realise human potential
- In terms of the economy, most socialists agree that the free market, driven by the profit motive, cannot allocate wealth and resources fairly to all members of society. Only the redistributive mechanism of the state can provide for all
– Marx = “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs”

Society
- Society is divided into unequal classes
- The political, economic and property divisions are more significant than any bonds.
- Society is an independent construct, formed by impersonal forces and shaping individuals inside it
- Socialists are sceptical on the individual being able to determine their own fate
- Society is the main reason for individuals not fulfilling potential
- If society can be improved; there can be improvement to the prospect of the individual

[I] Collectivism and Society
- Implies that society can be transformed by collective endeavour; a way of achieving an ideal society
- This emphasis on collectivism is rooted in the socialist view of human nature. The socialist view of human nature argues that humans are social animals
- It follows that humans have the capacity for collective action and can work together to achieve their goals. they should be tied together by bonds of fraternity
- Due to malleable human nature, socialists conclude the membership of a community or society offers humans true freedom and fulfilment
- To promote the idea of collectivism, most socialists call for state intervention and state planning
- This ensures the distribution of goods and services is not left to free market forces

Class
[I] Class and Social Political Context
- The existence of social classes explains the most important divides in society
- Socialists conclude that people with a similar socio-economic position share a similar outlook and have common aims
- It follows that social classes have been the principal agents of change throughout history
– e.g, conflict between ruling and revolutionary classes

[II] Class and Working Class
- Socialism is an ideological commitment to represent the interests of, and improve conditions for, the working class
- The working class provides the means for bringing about transformation
- Social class is not viewed as either an essential or everlasting feature of society because communism aim to eradicate all class, and other socialist societies seek to diminish class inequalities significantly

Question 6

Democratic Socialism

Answer 6

= The election of socialist individuals, groups and/or governments through democratic means to uphold and forward socialist policy

History/Development
[I] Early Democratic Socialism
- Early democratic socialist thought is primarily associated with the Fabian society and intellectuals; Sidney and Beatrice Webb.
- Fabian society refers to a socialist organisation favouring the gradual spread of socialism by peaceful means
– The society laid many of the foundation of the Labour Party

[II] Later Democratic Socialism
- The introduction of a welfare state under Attlee was legitimate and supported by the electorate
– Attlee and Democratic Socialism
–> National Health Service Act 1946 = health service to secure improvement in the physical and mental health of the people and the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of illness, free of charge
(Previously only the upper sections could afford comprehensive healthcare)
–> Nationalisation of Key Strategic Industries 1946 – The Bank of England was the first organisation to be nationalised by the new Labour government of Clement Attlee
–> 1948 – Railways were nationalised to help rebuild the network infrastructure and re-equip the rolling stock after the destructive effects of WW2
–> Keynesian economics and mass state intervention in economic life
- A large state able to offer means for employment and removing/limiting the role of corporations or the bourgeoisie
– Atlee would nationalise 1/5 of the entire economy

Key Principles
[I] Rejection of ‘Big Bang’ Revolutionary Change
- Under this form of evolutionary socialism, they push for using the current political democratic system to implement a socialist economy
- Key reasoning behind rejecting the revolutionary change of Marx and Engels can be seen through Beatrice Webb’s view on revolutions:
– “Chaotic, inefficient and counter-productive” and for that very reason, revolution was “guilty of the same problem besetting capitalism- unpredictability”

[II] Rejection of Capitalism
– Webb despised Capitalism on the grounds of its volatile and unpredictable nature
- Instead, looked to a planned and ‘rational’ society where “matters may be resolved sensibly…. By rational, educated and civic minded officials”

[III] Extension of Suffrage
- Early democratic socialists believed in the extension of the suffrage - Representation of the People Act 1918
- It had facilitated a more orderly, election-based progression towards post-capitalist society
- This is the ‘inevitability of gradualism’

[IV] Inevitably of Gradualism
- They believe the following process will see the implementation of socialist governments within democratic systems:
- Democratic socialist parties entice capitalist voters
- get elected
- implement state ownership
- its effective
- they’re re-elected
- leading to a socialist society
- the benefits of this remove risks of reversal, capitalism is dismantled (post-capitalism)

[V] The ideas of Beatrice Webb
1) Capitalism is a ‘corrupting force’ for humanity, fostering ‘unnatural’ levels of selfishness.
2) Paternalism is not a sustainable solution to the problems of poverty and inequality.
3) Poverty and inequality were most likely to be eliminated through vigorous trade unionism and extensive state intervention.
4) Effective reform tends to be gradual rather than revolutionary

Question 7

Communism

Answer 7

= Marx developed a new socialism which was concerned with commenting on the nature of social and historical development rather than just providing a critique of capitalism

Key concepts
[I] Historical Materialism
- Society at any given point in time is ordered by the type of technology used in the process of production
- Under industrial capitalism, society is ordered with capitalists organising labour in factories or offices where they work for wages
- Economic factors are the driving force for changing events, evidenced in the sub and superstructure

[II] Alienation
- Living in a capitalist society, the individual is not truly free
- He is alienated
- Alienation of labour suggests that the worker and his labour are estranged from him

[II] Dialectic –
- The dialectic is a process that drives social change
– Hegelian philosophy stipulates that social change occurs via an internal conflict upon which all ideas and states of affairs rest
- A thesis always contains an antithesis that eventually instigates change
- Consequently, a new state of affairs emerges called a synthesis

[IV] Substructure and Superstructure
- Society consists of two parts:
1) the base (or substructure)
2) superstructure
- The base = the mode of production which includes the forces and relations of production (e.g. employer–employee work conditions, the technical division of labour, and property relations) into which people enter to produce the necessities and amenities of life
The superstructure = society’s other relationships and ideas not directly relating to production including its culture, institutions, political power structures, roles, rituals, religion, media

Human nature
- Marxists maintain that true communal instincts can be liberated only by the removal of the exploitative capitalist system and the creation of a communist system
- Marxists believe that under capitalism, these conditions do not exist, so the individual is unable to realise their true human potential
- Thus, the only solution is the creation of a communist society in which private property, class differences and the state apparatus cease to exist.
- Being free from such constraints allows the individual to become a fully developed person, engaging in many activities and achieving their potential through creative operative work within a community

The State
- Socialism through revolution is based on the conviction that the state is a ‘bourgeois’ instrument of class oppression. The state looks to defend the capitalist interests.
– Marx = “The state is based on this contradiction… the state must confine itself”
- The primacy of the ruling class is reinforced by key institutions and agencies of the state.
– e.g, the parliamentary system, the mass media and high finance
- Piecemeal / gradual change will not lead to a genuinely socialist society because bourgeois values are too entrenched
- Communists look in the long run to remove the state and create a classless, stateless society.
– Marx = “But the working class cannot simply lay hold of the ready-made state machinery, and wield it for its own purposes”

Society
- A total transformation of society; the existing state must be replaced with revolutionary institutions.
- Revolutionary socialists are under no illusions about the capacity of capitalists to resist the rise of a socialist movement
- By their very nature, revolutions will face resistance by those with a vested interest in the status quo
- Political parties themselves are agents of the ruling class
- As such, liberal democracy is little more than an illusion
– Marx = “All forms of the state have democracy for their truth”
– Marx = “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles”
- It is the history of conflict between the oppressed and oppressor that ends in the revolutionary remaking of society along communist lines

Economy
- Marxists advocate replacing capitalism with a centrally planned economy based on the common ownership of the means of production
- Any attempt to ‘humanise’ capitalism would undermine the principles of socialism/communism
- Economic production will be determined solely by human need
- To reach this stage an overthrow of the capitalist system is required
– Marx and Engels envisaged in the aftermath of revolution, a transitional period where the formerly exploited workers were in control
- This worker control would be a short period between revolution and the stateless, classless, communist society and economy that would emerge from the ashes of capitalism