Nationalism Flashcards
Origins
= the belief that the nation is the central principle of political organisation
- Was developed from the core ideologies
- Born during the French Revolution; before this, countries were thought of as ‘realms’ with ‘subjects’; their political identity was an allegiance to a ruler.
- However, revolutionaries fought for the ‘French nation’.
- In Italy and Germany, countries which had been previously divided into a collection of states, the experience of conquest helped to forge national unity
– “The nationalist is proud of his country no matter what it does” – Sydney Harris
Key Concepts
Identity Politics
- Political institutions, organisations and causes based on collective Identity
- Aims to secure political freedom for a marginalised community - founded in shared injustice instead of belief systems
History
– Civil Rights and the Suffragettes - fostered on questions of origins and features of identities, creating consensus
- Aims to promote the reclamation of identity and pride
– “I do not wish [women] to have power over men; but over themselves.” – Wollstonecraft
- No limit to what movements are based upon identity politics (Indigenous rights, racial rights, etc…) - loose connection of political projects.
Challenges to Identity Politics
[I] Intersectionality – No axis of identity can be separate from others. To speak of ‘women’ without distinguishing between class, sexuality, nationality or ethnicity, risks representing only a proportion of the original identified group, typically, those more privileged
[II] Autonomy – Generalisations made about socio-political groups inhibits autonomy. Dominant subgroups may impose their vision of a group’s identity onto all its members.
[III] Variable – Categories of identity are historically contingent. The US example that an individual was characterised as black if they had ‘one drop of black blood.’ If this was applied to modern classifications of race, a significant number of nominally white people should be re-classified.
[IV] Unrepresentative – Race may have little correlation with other categories. Asian-Americans would find the limit of Asian-American identity considering the cultural diversity of Asia.
[V] Reinforces Dependency – Identity politics casts itself in opposition to the status quo. This reinforces the idea that one’s identity is dependent on the opposition, reinforcing hierarchy.
Patriotism
= strong sense of attachment to the state in which one lives
- Can be used to offer unity in states that do not contain a single national identity (the US)
– Rousseau wrote of a new form of state, held together by patriotism, reinforced by education, and establishing a representative, democratic government
– Maurras added xenophobia to conservative nationalism, creating a form of nativism
- He believed France had lost its greatness due to the abandonment of heredity monarchy, its separation of Church and state - believed the Church & state should be untied
Sovereignty
= Absolute power expressed either as unchallengeable legal authority or political power
The Nation
- The Nation should be the central principle of political organisation
- Nations are cultural entities - collections of people bound together by shared values and traditions such as common language, religion and history
- The nation can be defined by ‘objective’ factors:
1) Symbols of the nation
2) Language – Common expressions, distinctive nature and familiar personality that unites a group.
– German nationalism usually values itself on cultural unity with the superiority and survivability of the German language
– The US and UK share English but deem themselves separate nations
3) Religion – Expresses common moral values and spiritual beliefs that are natural areas for a unification.
– Irish Protestant Unionists against Irish Catholic Republicans
– Italy and Poland are majority Catholic, yet not the same nation.
4) Culture – More cultural than biological.
– African American nationalism is based on distinctive history and culture
- Re-calling past glories and future expectations is a common way to preserve nationalism
- The nation is a psycho-political entity; a group who regard themselves as a natural political community, thus is subjective - distinguished by shared loyalty in the form of patriotism
- Difficulties such as the absence of land, a small population or lack of economic resources are insignificant if a group insist on demanding national rights
– Kurdish people have nationalist aspirations, despite being geographically dispersed.
– Rousseau = Nationhood was a force that could create cohesion for new forms of government
– Locke = National identity was born of those oppressed who yearned for freedom, such as the Americans.
The Nation-state
- Nationhood and statehood are linked. Its manifestations are:
1) A Process of Unification:
- German history has seen multiple periods of reunification
- Medieval times under Emperor Charlemagne through the Holy Roman Empire, in the 19th century under Bismarck and when East and West Germany were united in 1990 with the fall of the USSR
2) The Achievement of Independence:
- The US declared itself independent from Britian with the Declaration of Independence 1776
- Revolutionary war was fought, ending in 1783
- Constitution was created in 1787, formalising the US state, uniting the nation to the state under the flag of the US
- The nation-state joins the idea of statehood and collective national identity
- The nation state provides cultural cohesion and political unity
- When a group who share unifying factors form together to create a government; nationality, and citizenship merge.
- Nationalism provides powerful mandates to government as political sovereignty resides entirely within the people
- Not all nations are states and not all states are nations:
– The UK – Multinational – Welsh, English, Scottish and Irish – Multiple national groupings under one state.
– The US – Differing national origins amongst citizens, thus replaced by patriotism to the state
– Scotland – Nations within another nation state, seeking independence.
Organic Community
- Humankind is naturally divided into a collection of nations, each possessing a separate identity.
- National ties and loyalties are found in all societies, they endure, operating at an instinctual level.
1) Primordialist
- The nation is rooted in common cultural heritage and language that may long pre-date statehood or national independence and are characterised by emotional attachments
– Anthony Smith – Modern states are updated versions of long-established ethnic communities
2) Modernist
- National identity is forged in response to changing situations
– Ernest Gellner – Nations coalesced in response to conditions and circumstances (Such as industrialisation)
– Benedict Anderson – The nation is an ‘imagined community’, as individuals only ever meet a tiny proportion of those with whom they supposedly share identity
3) Constructivist
- National identity is an ideological construct, usually serving the interests of powerful groups
– Eric Hobsbawm – Nations are based on ‘invented traditions’, as a belief in historical continuity and cultural purity are a myth created by nationalism itself
Conservative Nationalism
= Seeks to maintain tradition through its history and culture. It’s exclusive
- It’s more irrational; looking at emotional connections to a nation
- Look to maintain monoculturalism as a change in culture threatens the foundations of tradition that the nation is built on
- Can be seen through the following conservative ideas:
1) Rejection of Liberal Nationalism, favouring Exclusivity
- Conservative Nationalism seeks the maintenance of tradition and culture to form the state, rejecting liberal ideas of laissez-faire and multiculturalism
2) Nation State
- Once the nation and the state had been brought together in the nation state, conservatives saw that nationalism could be a force for protecting the state against radicals
- A nation-state is a territorially bounded sovereign state, that is ruled in the name of a community of citizens who identify themselves as a nation
- Due to monoculturalism and ideas of the superiority of host culture, they reject the idea that any individual can identify with any nation
- Nations were formed for safety, efficiency, and the protection of property. A group united will not aim to topple traditional institutions. Nationalism breads order, and authority
3) Organic
- The creation of the state was organic
- In line with Burke’s ideas of little platoons, communities were formed to provide security, meaning and social cohesion
- These evolved into nations with defined hierarchies as those who possessed greater talents rose (natural aristocracy)
4) Order
- Nationalism could be used to protect and enhance the existing social order and traditional institutions
- Agree with the concept of the self-determination of the nation, as the nation guides its own destiny
- Reject individual self-determination due to its promotion of revolutionary thinking that harms the foundations of the nation
5) One Nation
- The unity and identity of the nation is of overriding importance
- Symbols, values, myths, and traditions should be used to nurture a romantic connection to the nation; combating divisions
- As the nation is the superior political entity, the existing nation-state should be something all classes had a vested interest in defending
- A state with a common mythos and identity is unified, thus can better resist threats
- Not all ideas of one nation are applicable as paternalism would advocate the use of foreign aid
– Disraeli argued that a society’s classes were all members of the same national ‘family’
6) Romantic
- State derives its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs
- This includes, symbols and mythos and in primal sense, those who born within its culture
7) Rights of the Nation
- The desire to preserve identity and unity of the nation by preserving the status quo against change or returning to the ‘golden age’ of the nation, based on a romanticised view
- The nation state should promote its own interests
8) Opposition to Supranationalism
- Supranationalism = international bodies have the power to impose their will on nation states
- National institutions should not be weakened by supranational bodies
– Opposition to the EU has been strong among Eurosceptics in the conservative party and was crucial to the rise of UKIP. UKIP sees the EU as a threat to British institutions by limiting the sovereignty of parliament. – Eurozone and European Court of Justice
Examples/scholars:
– Von Herder = “there is only one class in the state”
– Donald Trump
- Trump threatened to remove all 12,000 US troops from Germany in 2018 as Germany made no contribution to their funding within NATO.
- Protection of sovereignty and self-determinism – Rejection of Paris Climate Change Agreement.
- Executive Order ‘Border Security and Immigration Enforcement Improvements’ entails limits on access to asylum, enhanced enforcement along the US-Mexico border, and the construction of a 2,000-mile border wall
Ethnic nationalism
Ethnic nationalism (or ethnonationalism) = a form of nationalism where the nation and nationality are defined in terms of ethnicity
– Ethnocentric = thinking one’s own group’s ways are superior to others
– Maurras = “A true nationalist places his country above everything.”
(He was a monarchist and loyal to the Catholic Church within French society. He rejected liberal-democratic principles which he believed were contrary to natural inequality.
- The Enlightenment had led to rampant individualism and needed to be corrected with militarism and authoritarianism)
Imperialism and colonialism
Imperialism and Colonialism
- Imperialism = The policy of extending the rule of an Empire over foreign countries. ‘Imperial rule’
- Colonialism = The settlement of a foreign country via an imperial power causing the separation of the indigenous population from their land
– Correlation between chauvinistic nationalism and imperialist beliefs
- Centres on the chosen people
- This sense of national superiority is within symbols of nationhood
- To be the nation implies a birth-right of dominance
– e.g. The British Empire
– At its height in 1922, it was the largest empire the world had ever seen, covering around a quarter of Earth’s land surface and ruling over 450 million people
Radical nationalism and Facism
– Radical Nationalism = Extreme interpretations of nationalist concepts
– Fascism = The idea of a monolithic, regimented nation under the control of an autocratic ruler
- Common characteristic of Fascism are:
- extreme militaristic nationalism
- contempt for democracy and political and cultural liberalism
- a belief in natural social hierarchy and the rule of elites
- and desire to create a “people’s community”, in which individual interests are subordinate to the good of the nation
– e.g Mussolini’s Fascist Italy
- Under the leadership of Mussolini, Italy oversaw brutality in Ethiopia and would fight in the axis powers, defending the persecution of races and the national supremacy of white Europeans and Italian history and culture
Expansionist nationalism
- Opposed to all aspects of liberal nationalism
- Rejects the right to national self-determination
- Opposed to inclusion, diversity and social progress
- Expansionist nationalism is characterised by the mindset of chauvinism and the language of jingoism
- This is used by leaders who create a scapegoat.
– The Scramble for Africa
- The ‘scramble for Africa’- one aim of the colonising European nations was to ‘civilise’ the African nations.
- In 1914, 90% of Africa had been colonised by European powers
Anti-Colonial and Post-Colonial Nationalism
- Anti-colonial nationalism = A group of people previously treated as not part of a nation see themselves as a community deserving of self-determination
- Post-colonial nationalism = A liberated nation exercising nationalist agendas or policy to re-build, re-unify and reignite national spirit
- Indigenous populations should be recognised as nations and therefore able to express their own self-determination. In doing so, they shatter imperialist rule and (re)gain a sense of national pride
– The USA
- In 1776 thirteen American colonies declared their independence from Great Britain.
- The Continental Army would fight off British occupation until the Treaty of Paris 1783
- The new constitution saw a strong national government and identity
Black nationalism
Black nationalism = The mistreatment of black people led to a collective consciousness
- Seeks support for unity and political self-determination for black people, especially in the form of a separate black nation
- Reject accommodationists / gradualism
- Only way to secure black empowerment is to confront white supremacy
– Marcus Garvey
- Founded UNIA, a organisation of black nationalists
- Advocated for “separate but equal” status for persons of African ancestry. They sought to establish independent Black states (Liberia)
Defining a Nation and A Nation-state
Nation = defined by geographic location, a unifying public culture, language, history, tradition, ethos/religion or political consensus
State = an area which has a permanent presence and population, and government. A sovereign state is usually recognised as sovereign by other states.
- The state is the collection of government and its institutions. The state runs the nation.
- Nation-State = Refers to a geographic area where the cultural boundaries of the nation match up with the political boundaries of the state
- The Nation State
The major issue with the concept of a nation state is that it is an ideal:
– Most modern nation states contain elements of different nations and cultures. E.g Belgium is a state where members claim both a culture identity and a national identity
– Some nations do not have a state, for example, the Kurds (over 30 million people, without a state, spread across Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran)
– Some states do not have a nation with a sense of common ties that bind - Nation-States and Liberal Nationalism
– The primary aim is to create a world of nation-states endowed with self-determination
– Wilsonian liberalism is associated with the idea that constructing a world of nation-states is the best way of preventing war:
– Woodrow Wilson’s 1918 Declaration
—> “This war had its roots in the disregard of the rights of small nations”
– Wilson’s ideals have inspired the creation of international organisations such as the League of Nations 1919 and the UN in 1945. Nations needed to be unified within the new internationalised world order - Nation States and Chauvinistic Nationalism
= Chauvinistic nationalists believe that only some nations can benefit from nation-statehood; others should be willing colonies
– 2014: Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula from Ukraine. Crimea is Ukrainian under law, yet Putin sees it as a strategic entity
– Russia sees themselves as the owner of Ukraine, with its will being of superior importance to any affairs of the Crimea. Russia wants to block Ukraine from joining NATO to restrict western presence in eastern Europe. This had involved into a full-scale invasion
The Concept of a nation
The Concept of a nation
= An essential feature of nationalism is that people feel a strong sense of national identity
- May be compromised by other identities, such as religion or ethnicity, but nationalism is seen as a form of consciousness
- It can be based on common identities:
1) History
- An objective factor
- Conservative nationalism focused on share traditions, history and culture
- They believe in creating a common bond within a nation through its history
– Herder urged a revival of German nationalism, based on a romantic mythology of the people’s historical roots - referred to people with a strong cultural unity as Volk and the spirit that bound them as Volkgeist – ‘The spirit of the people’.
2) Culture
- Culture also includes a shared history
- The British are a multinational people, made up of several ethnic groups. In Britain there is a strong sense of cultural and historic identity
– e.g, the traditions in the arts, pride in their history and a strong set of values
3) Language
- A common language can be used as a criterion for claiming rights to nationhood
– French originally a tribal distinction (Franks), distinguish themselves largely through language
– Fichte saw the nation as a cultural reality, based on a common language - believed a people, united by history, language and a strong sense of patriotism could achieve great progress in terms of economic and intellectual civilisation
- rejected liberal nationalism as it weakened the collective will by emphasising freedom
4) National Symbols
- Use of national symbols is to provide the nation with unity and identity of the nation
- Symbols, values, myths, memories, and tradition are used to nurture a romantic connection to the nation and combat division like gender, class, age or wealth
– Conservative nationalist use the state and associated institutions such as the monarchy as a source of unity that embodies the spirit of the nation
– Anniversaries of historic victories, or birth dates of significant figures from the past, historical symbols, commemorate the unique nature of the nation’s culture and foster national unity
Self-Determination and Separatism
- Idea of the self-determination of people arose from Enlightenment
– Rousseau insisted self-determination was a reaction against an absolute monarchy and provided the basis for the creation of democratic states - These democratic states could emerge from various forms, most notably:
–> Revolutionary – USA, France
–> Reform – UK with constitutional reform
– Rousseau:
- Expressed the idea of the general will or common good
- A collective struggle (Polish independence from Russia) is an example of something which culturally unifies a group of people
- Argued that government should not be based on the absolute power of a monarch, but on the collective will of the community
- During the French Rev, the French people were ‘citizens’ with natural rights and sovereign power resided with the French nation
Separatism = Nation-states can be created through the achievement of independence
- As democracy began to take root in many nations during the 19th century, self-determination became a key for those seeking liberation. This is the process of separatism.
– Following WWI the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires collapsed allowing for various European states to become nation states
– Modern Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Catalonia, etc.
Ethnicity / Culturalism
= A particular population, cultural group or people belonging to a geographical area
- Bonds are cultural > racial
- Inclusive nationalists: Multiculturalists = National identity is a flexible concept, based on shared values and experience
- Exclusive nationalists = Nativists stress the shared historical experience of a people - reluctant to tolerate large-scale immigration and favour native peoples
– Thatcher was fearful of being ‘swamped’ by people of another culture. - Culturalism nationalism
- The defence of cultural identity over political demands
- The goal of the nation is to develop an awareness of national traditions and collective memories over statehood (The Black Panthers)
- It is irrational and romantic
- However, can be tolerant and consistent with progressive values, with culture rising above race
– e.g. Fichte and Herder
Institutions
- Nationalism can be used as a defence for traditional institutions, reflecting past glories
- Institutions become symbols of national identity
1) Rational nationalists = The creation of sovereign political communities
- The nation was seen as the most rational way of dividing people up into such communities
- Any other way of dividing people would be arbitrary and unstable
- See the nation as serving the state rather than the state serving the nation, promoting institutions
2) Romantic nationalism = The importance of culture and language
- The nation is an historic entity to which people have an emotional attachment
- The nation is organic in that people have a strong sense of binding community
- National interests stand above those of the state
- The state exists to serve the nation and its organic unity, thus the role of institutions is minimal
Government promotion of nationalist values and citizenship
- Shared values and a common culture are necessary for a stable and successful society.
- The term ‘nation’ originates from Latin meaning people who share common circumstances of birth
- However, circumstances vary = France (originally a tribal distinction known as the Franks), distinguish themselves largely through language
– Britain, born into a common culture, as a nation of complex ethnic origins they still consider themselves as culturally separate from the remainder of the world
– Japan, nation by virtue of ethnic exclusiveness - Japan was little affected by waves of immigration, so its ethnic identity is largely exclusive - Historical nations were largely cultural groupings which sometimes governed themselves (France/English), sometimes governed by external powers (Italians/Scots) and sometimes spread across various states (Jewish community)
- Modern day sees the return of governments and nations seeking to promote their common culture
- This emphasis in recent years can be placed down to 3 key developments:
[I] Rise in Globalisation
= Growth multi-national corporations, free trade, internet markets that do not recognise national boundaries weakens the idea of a nation state in terms of political boundaries
- Rise in supranational organisations has weakened self-determination
- This has seen as resurgence of conservative and populist movements
[II] Dividing into regional blocs – The creation of the EU, NATO, have all grouped nations together and lessened their significant in the world
- These organizations have failed to find a collective identity to rival nationalism and, in some instances, have stoked nationalist sentiment (Hungary, Poland, UK), but can also be seen to threaten the idea of a nation state
[III] Religious fundamentalism
- Rise of religious fundamentalism has cut across and threated national identity
– Afghanistan, Yemen, Somalia, and Iraq
