Conservatism

Question 1

Traditional Conservatism

Answer 1

= committed to hierarchic and paternalistic values - emphasise need for principles of a transcendent moral order, manifested through certain natural laws to which society ought to conform in a prudent manner

1) Human Nature
([I] summary)
- Conservatives inclined to restrain optimism by stressing the frailty and fallibility of human nature
- They regard human nature as a ‘philosophy of imperfection’, inspired by Old Testement doctorine of Original Sin.
- They deny any possibility of a perfect, utopian society comprising of rational individuals, like the ideas proposed by Liberals
- Their view of humanity is pessimistic
- They argue that they view humanity as it is rather than as it could or should be

–> The state of nature
= Human nature is ruthlessly selfish, calculating and competitive
- Hobbes argued without the restraints of formal authority, relations between human beings would be marked by ‘envy, hatred and war’, leading to a life that was ‘nasty, brutish and short’
- State of nature according to Hobbes, was a state of war.
–> Dystopianism
= Burke duly rejected the idea that human nature was guided mainly by reason and dismissed any notion that mankind could plan the near-perfect society
–> Original Sin
= Drawing upon the biblical principle of original sin, Burke highlighted the ‘chasm between our desire and our achievement’ and thus stressed custom, habit and experience as indicators as to how we should behave

– Oakeshott = human nature was “fragile and fallible”, yet it was also “benign and benevolent”
– Oakeshott = life without law would be “not so much nasty, brutish and short…as noisy, foolish and flawed”
– Hobbes = Human life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”

2) Society
= Conservatism’s view of society is defined by a variety of themes, all of which are thought conducive to stability, security and orderly change as opposed to revolutionary proposed by liberals

–> Localism
- See society as a collection of localised communities
- Burke described these “little platoons”
- These communities provide their individuals with security, status and inspiration
–> Organicism
- For Conservatives society cannot be contrived or created but instead it is something that emerges gradually, organically and is thus somewhat mysterious
- Conservatives claim the Liberal societal view of rationalism is unrealistic
- They argue that the reality is that an unplanned organic society provides evidence that human life is subject to complex and worrying forces beyond the scope of reason
- In an organism the whole is more than a collection of its individual parts, with social groups providing the individual with security and meaning
–> Empiricism
- This empirical nature means that conservatives will deal with any issues within society in a practical, evidential ‘this is how it is’ manner in contrast to liberal ideas of how things ‘ought to be’
–> Tradition
- Place a focus on this value of customs, traditions and continuity rather than the idealistic nature of liberalism
- Due to the fact Cons believe that a perfect society based on reason could not be achieved
– Oakeshott – “Just as a plant’s new leaves are connected to, dependent on and explain by the plant’s roots and branches, so a society present direction stems from its past development”
- The passing of institutions, customs or beliefs from generation to generation provides security and order to Conservatives
–> Hierarchy
- Society where individuals are ranked according to their fixed status or authority which is unconnected to their ability
- Stems from the notion that the imperfections of humanity lead seamlessly to inequalities within human nature
– Burke = these imperfections lead to an unequal society where “the wiser, stronger and more opulent” establish a hierarchy of power and privilege.
–> Paternalism –
- Conservatives keen to stress that those in positions of authority and power hold a responsibility to those without
- This compromise is known as paternalism
- This derives from the conservative principle that the relationship between a society’s stronger elements and its weaker elements is similar to the relationship between a father and a child. (Advocated for by Disraeli)
–> Property
- Conservatives support tradition and continuity with property (hereditary)
- Maintenance of society though property ownership which provides an incentive for owners to exercise a ‘duty of care’ towards others
- New Right thinkers hope for the creation of a ‘property owning-democracy’ (those with property are better prepared to resist infringements on liberty)
–> Judaeo-Christian Morality
- Places a strong emphasis on: Marriage, Self-contained families and Individuals being held accountable for their own actions

3) The state

–> Order and Authoirty
- Views the state as holding a disciplinary function (advocated by Sir Robert Peel)
- The aim = provide order, security and authority
– Instead Hobbes emphasises the feasibility that individual rights are entirely dependent upon law and order
- This law and order can only be provided by the state.
–> Elitism
- Much more comfortable (than liberals and socialists) with a state that is overtly hierarchical
- By flexible means, the conservative state would avert social upheaval and revolution while maintaining traditional patterns of wealth and power in society
–> Organic origins
- Cons sceptical about states that arise momentously, from a formal ‘rational’ discussion
- Such states, conservatives argue, are likely to be normative, not empirical, based on ideals rather than reality, and therefore likely to fail
- Instead, conservatives prefer a state that emerges gradually, unpredictably and without commotion (organic State)
–> Gradualism
– Whilst Hobbes is committed to ‘government by consent’, conservatives are sceptical about states that arise momentously, from a formal rational discussion
- Conservatives prefer a state that emerges gradually, unpredictably and without fanfare
- This is an organic and pragmatic response to humanity’s needs
–> Empirical
- Cons reject Hobbes view of social contract theory and states created through this theory
-They argue the creation of such a state under social contract theory conditions will be based on normative ideals rather than reality
- They believe this normative formation of the state will likely fail
- Instead, conservatives argue a state should be formed on empirical values
- Conservatives will deal with society’s issues in a practical, evidential, ‘this is how it is’ fashion, with no clear view of how society might evolve
–> The Nation-state
- The nation became a mega-community, one that enfolded all classes and therefore provided a ‘natural’ basis for the state
- For continental conservatives (Germany or Italy), there remains a powerful sense that the nation preceded the state, that the two are distinct, and that the latter is distinguishable from the former
- For patriot conservatives (UK and USA), however, nation and state are much more intertwined, with the state serving to define much of the nation itself — hence the importance of constitutions, monarchs and presidents as expressions of British and American identity

– Rand = “When the state becomes flabby, it also becomes feeble”
(The aim is to streamline the nation-state’s functions and to make it ‘leaner and fitter’ in the process)
– Oakeshott = “The enterprise is to keep afloat on an even keel; the sea is both friend and enemy, and the seamanship consists in using the resources of a traditional manner of behaviour in order to make a friend of every hostile occasion”

4) Economy
= Conservatism and capitalism appears compatible due to the fact free-market capitalism tends to nurture and widen economic inequalities and to sharpen the distinction between the rich and poor
- Conservative economics often inherits capitalist qualities off this relationship

–> Capitalisms’ reluctant supporters
- Conservatives recognize that any assault on capitalism is also an assault on property, inequality and hierarchy and the status quo
- All of these are key to the operation of state, society and their views on human nature
- The classical or neo-liberal belief that markets are most effective when left alone by governments (laissez-faire) does not translate into conservative ideology as a key problem with support for Laissez-Faire is it requires a positive view of human nature
- This is inconsistent with conservative scepticism and pessimism.
–> Protectionism
- Hybrid form of free markets where state intervention is present
- Under this system the society and economy would be insured against the unexpected, radical changes of the markets by state imposed tariffs and duties

– Adam Smith = “But the cruellest of our revenue laws, I will venture to affirm, are mild and gentle, in comparison to some of those which the clamour of our merchants and manufacturers has extorted from the legislature, for the support of their own absurd and oppressive monopolies. Like the laws of Draco, these laws may be said to be all written in blood”
– Keynes = “protectionism is at least plausible, and the forces making for its popularity are nothing to wonder at”

Question 2

Economic Conservatism

Answer 2

1) Roles of the Market

[I] Traditional Conservatism
- Defends inequality and hierarchy
- Appears compatible with free-market capitalism as it nurtures and widens economic inequalities to increase the divide between the rich and poor
- Conservatives are wary of capitalism as:
* Free market capitalism promotes rapid change and freedom of the individual, which contradicts traditional conservative values of order and hierarchy
* It is also highly uncontrollable which would discomfort the tradition based, sceptical of change conservatives
* A free market, in theory, allows for equality of opportunity which allows all people the opportunity to gain capital and flourish
- This contradicts cons views of social hierarchy

– With this wariness of free market capitalism, traditional conservatives have been dubbed “capitalisms reluctant supporters”

• Support = They recognise any assault on capitalism is also an assault on property, inequality and hierarchy and the status quo - key to the operation of state, society and their views on human nature
• Opposition = Classical or neo-liberal belief that markets are most effective when left alone by governments (laissez-faire) does not translate into conservative ideology as a key problem with support for Laissez-Faire is it requires a positive view of human nature -inconsistent with conservative scepticism and pessimism
• The role of the market is to create, strengthen and widen economic inequality
• But this can only be executed if markets are regulated = Protectionism

[II] One Nation Conservatism
- Within the One Nation, Disraeli established paternalism = wealthy would have a responsibility to the less well-off
- State would need to intervene in the free-market economy to ensure the markets functioned in a way able to ensure social stability and quell revolutionary sentiment
- This idea = ‘tory welfarism’ or the modern Keynesian economics - advocated managing the economy in line with a goal of full employment and supporting enlarged welfare provision

[III] The New Right
- Believes the role of market forces is to better the distribution and management of society’s resources
- Deep cuts in taxation, privatisation, de-regulation and tight restrictions on government spending are needed to return to free-market capitalism which will in turn promote neo-liberal principles such as individualism and true fiscal freedom

2) Neoliberalism
- 1970s: West saw several economic problems (stagflation) that discredited Keynesian policies and helped create a more receptive environment for neo-liberal thinking
- Neo-liberalism as promoted by Friedman and Hayek, champions the free-market economy
- It views the free market as the only mechanism that can meet the consumer demand for goods and services efficiently and widely, maximise the use of resources and achieve the greatest overall prosperity
- Neo-liberals argue government intervention cannot solve economic problems (such as rising unemployment and inflation) or allocate resources within a developed economy.
- Government involvement merely causes these economic problems or worsens them
- Neo liberals maintain that the operation of the free market has to be protected against three main threats:

• Monopolies = Less choice, less freedom, less individualism
• Enlarged Government Expenditure = When the state is flappy it is also feeble
• Welfarism = Creates a dependency culture
• Neo-Liberalism in the economy also advocates atomistic individualism (the idea that individuals are rational, self-interested and self-sufficient)
• Linked to the belief in free-market economic
• According to the liberal new right, the freedom of the market is the guarantee of individual freedom
• Neo-liberals view freedom in this sense in negative terms, stressing the need to remove external constraints or limitations on the individual
• This individual freedom can only be preserved by opposing collectivism and rolling back the state
• They criticise state welfare policies for creating a ‘dependency culture’ and infringing on property rights by imposing high taxes on individuals
• This institutionalises poverty + unemployment and undermines atomistic individualism
• If people no longer face government intervention and interference they will be free to deal with each other freely
• These unrestricted human interactions will create a ‘natural order’ vastly superior to any imposed model because it is based on everyone’s consent

3) Views on state intervention
= Cons economic thought can be very pragmatic ranging from the belief that economic activity should be free from government interference to the acceptance that governments should manage the economy for the good of society

Evidence:
– Paul Bairoch (Historian) = “Historically, free trade is the exception and protectionism the rule”

– Findlay and O’Rourke = “the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, European trade policies were almost universally protectionist (Bar the Netherlands and Denmark)”

– Edmund Coke = “An Englishman’s home is his castle”

– Adam Smith = “The real tragedy of the poor is the poverty of their aspirations”

– Ayn Rand = “I am opposed to all forms of control. I am for an absolute, laissez-faire, free, unregulated economy”

– Murray Rothbard (American Libertarian economist) = “Whenever someone starts talking about ‘fair competition’ or indeed, about ‘fairness’ in general, it is time to keep a sharp eye on your wallet, for it is about to be picked”

– Murray Rothbard = “Free-market capitalism is a network of free and voluntary exchanges in which producers work, produce, and exchange their products for the products of others through prices voluntarily arrived at”

– Keynes = “At any rate, the obvious scientific deficiencies of these two schools (Protectionism and Marxian Socialism) greatly contributed to the prestige and authority of nineteenth-century laissez-faire”

– Disraeli = “There can be an economy only where there is efficiency”

[I] Against State intervention:
–> Laissez-Faire (Traditional & New Right Conservatism)
- Conservatives argue a system based upon private ownership (namely capitalism) is superior as it, facilitates those who wish to ‘get on’ in life
- Providing mortgage tax relief to the sale of council homes at a substantial discount
- Laissez-faire benefits everyone - trickle-down effect
- Whilst the result of the trickle-down effect is an uneven distribution of wealth and income, conservatives take the view that such an outcome is both inevitable and desirable
- The freer market the freer the people
- The ability to spend the wealth we earn is an important symbol of a free society
- E.g. home ownership means that we are relatively free to do as we wish with our property

• The New Right have reverted to a more sympathetic view of free-market economies than one-nation conservatives
• They believe that market forces are the best method for the distribution and management of society’s resources
• With this belief in mind, they advocate deep cuts in taxation, privatisation, deregulation and tight restrictions on government spending are needed to be able to return to free-market capitalism
• They believe everyone should have the opportunity to enter the marketplace with minimal levels of taxation and regulation in order to generate generalised prosperity
• Further argue the market is self-correcting and will tend to ensure the most efficient allocation of scarce resources
• It will enable the individual to make their own decisions free from bureaucratic meddling
• Those who supply goods and services must respond to the needs of the consumer if they want to survive
• If they don’t, the government should let them fail
  – Joseph Schumpeter labels this the “creative destruction” of capitalism -which provides sufficient incentive and reward to enable individuals to fulfil their potential
  – Seen under Thatcher - mining industry - shutting down dozens of pits in the early 1980s, costing thousands of people their jobs
  – Thatcher planned to shut down 20 more, which caused the mass miners’ strike of 1984-85
  – The strike ended in 1985 without a deal, and with the mines being closed

[II] Interventionist yet favour Laissez-Faire
–> Protectionism (Traditional Conservatism)
- Favour laissez-faire but have a middle ground through protectionism
- Moderated form of capitalism, in which free markets are influenced by state intervention
- The economy would be insured against the unpredictability of the free market by state-imposed tariffs and duties
- This should offset the liberal consequences of free-market capitalism

[III] In favour of State intervention
–> Keynesian State Intervention (One-Nation Conservatism)
- Traditional conservatives in the 20th century shifted toward Keynesian capitalism - state ‘managed’ market forces in the interests of full employment. – Advocated for by PMs such as Disraeli, MacMillan and Cameron
– Disraeli tried to draw attention to the danger of Britain being divided into ‘two nations: the rich and the poor’ under an unchecked capitalism
– Disraeli opted for a form of intervention known as ‘tory welfarism’
– The high point was reached in the 1950s and 60s, when conservative governments in the UK and elsewhere had come to practice a version of Keynesian social democracy, managing the economy in line with a goal of full employment and supporting enlarged welfare provision
- This stance was based on a ‘middle way’ between laissez-fare liberalism and socialism
- Conservatism was the way of moderation, and sought to balance individualism and collectivism (collective interests above individual interests)
– Best seen in the UK under Harold Macmillan’s middle way (1957-63) - advocated ‘planned capitalism’, which combined state ownership, regulation of economic activity as well as a drive towards private business growth

Question 3

New Right Conservatism

Answer 3

Origins
- New Right strand of conservatism gathered momentum from mid-1970s as a rival to one-nation conservatism and socialism
- During mid-1970’s, Western governments utilised orthodox interventionist policies based on Keynesianism and welfarism –> led to stagflation in their economies
- This stagflation caused several problems for the society, economy and state
- Thus, New Right thinking exerted a powerful influence looking to solve these problems in the UK and US
- By combining Neo-Conservatism and Neo-Liberalism, the New Right contains radical, traditional and reactionary elements:
* Radicalism = seek to abandon govt intervention in economic and social affairs and attack permissive (people should be allowed to make their own moral choices) social attitudes
* Traditional = stress the benefit of traditional value e.g. organicism, order and community
* Reactionary = often appear to want to return to the 1800s, which they regard as a mythical age of economic liberty and moral responsibility

Neo-Liberalism
= modernised version of classical liberalism, based on a commitment to the free-market economy, minimal state, individual freedom and responsibility

Key Concepts:
[I] Minimal State
– Right-wing economists = Friedman + Hayek view the free market as the only mechanism that can meet consumer demand for goods and services efficiently, maximise the use of resources, and achieve the greatest overall prosperity
- Neo-liberals argue government intervention merely causes the economic problems or deepens them
[II] Self-reliant individuals = New Right believe although humans may be selfish, they’re rational and entitled to pursue their own interests in their own way as long as they accept other can do the same
- This approach to individualism, releases human potential and creates natural harmony through free relations between people
[III] Rejection of Collectivism
- Neo-liberalism advocates atomistic individualism
- According to the liberal new right, the freedom of the market is the guarantee of individual freedom
- Neo-liberals believe freedom in negative terms, stressing the need to remove external limitations on the individual and that individual freedom can only be preserved by opposing collectivism and rolling back the state
- Neo-liberals criticise state welfare policies for creating a dependency culture
- They argue such a system, actually institutionalises poverty and unemployment and undermines atomistic individualism
[IV] Elimination of Government Intervention
- Neo-liberals argue if people no longer face govt interference, they will be free to deal with each other without restrictions
- These unhindered human interactions will create a ‘natural’ order vastly superior to any imposed model because it is based on everyone’s consent
- Neo-liberals regard govt intervention in the economy as the most potent threat to the free market
- State planning, nationalisation and high taxation are all rejected on the ground that they distort the market and contribute to further economic problems
- Any economic policy looks to the ‘supply-side’ economics as opposed to Keynesian policies to stimulate demand
- They argued that Keynesian policies to stimulate demand create inflation by governments printing too much money or providing too much credit

Neo-Conservatism
= updated form of traditional conservative social thinking, based on a commitment to order, traditional values and public morality
- For neo-conservatives, the unwelcomed liberal permissive changes of the 1960s threatened society with social fragmentation, which could only be stopped by strong political leadership and authority

Key Concepts:
[I] Stress on Authority and Need to Preserve Society
- Neo-conservatism stress on authority and the need to preserve society shows that the conservative New Right is influenced to some degree by traditional conservative ideas of organicism
- However, this form of conservatism is much more authoritarian, placing an emphasis on strengthening society by reasserting authority and social discipline
[II] Protection of Public Morality
- There is a view with the New Right that since the 1960s authority and respect have declined in Western nations, leading to higher crime figures and a rise in anti-social behaviour
- Neo-conservatives have argued for the re-imposition of authority and discipline at every level of society, to restore the authority of traditional social structures
- This includes the family with its ‘natural’ internal relationships based on hierarchy and patriarchy
- New right conservatism promotes the ‘strong state’ or state authoritarianism, with increased police powers and harsher punishments, to tackle crime and public disorder
[III] Anti-Permissiveness = the rejection of permissiveness
- Permissiveness = belief that people should make their own moral choices
- This suggests there’s no objective right and wrong
- This anti-permissiveness and concern for public morality stems from the emergence of a ‘free-for-all’ culture in some Western countries during the 1960s
– This permissive society of the 1960s was largely condemned by Thatcher who advocated ‘Victorian values’
- For the conservative New Right, there are two problems if an individual is free to adopt their own personal moral code or lifestyle:
1) The individual concerned may opt for an immoral lifestyle
2) People should not be free to choose different moral positions because it prevents the creation of common moral standards which undermines social cohesion
(this view can be seen with the New Right critique of multiculturalism, which in their view, threats social and national unity by dividing along ethic/racial and religious lines
– e.g. the morality of Saudi Arabian society greatly contradicts British – Punishment for petty crimes, promiscuity before marriage, LGBTQ rights)

Real Policies/Examples
Neo-Liberal
– Privatisation of state-controlled industries on grounds of freedom, competition and efficiency (T)
– Promotion of free market through deregulation policies affection London’s financial sector – The Bing Bang 1986 (T)
– Reagan = “We don’t have a trillion-dollar debt because we haven’t taxed enough; we have a trillion-dollar debt because we spend too much” (R)
– Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981) enacted by Reagan to spur on economic growth - introduced major tax cut - across-the-board decrease in the rates of federal income tax + reduced estate taxes, capital gains taxes and corporate taxes (R)

Neo-Conservative
– Opposition to permissive attitudes and ‘alternative’ lifestyles led to Section 28 (1988), a law prohibiting promotion of homosexuality (T)
– Determination to protect public morality led to government regulation of the UK video market, following concerns about ‘video nasty’ horror films – The Video Recording Act 1984 (T)
– Reagan signed Comprehensive Crime Control Act (1984) - resulted in major sentencing and bail reform –> harsher sentences and preventative bail for violent offenders.
– Gay rights + the growing HIV/AIDS emerged as an important matter of public concern in the 1980s, however no civil rights legislation for gay individuals passed during Reagan’s tenure

Thinkers/Quotes

Rand = “The question isn’t who is going to let me; it’s who is going to stop me”

Rand = “Learn to value yourself, which means: to fight for your happiness”

Thatcher = “They are casting their problems at society. And, you know, there’s no such thing as society. There are individual men and women and there are families. And no government can do anything except through people, and people must look after themselves first. It is our duty to look after ourselves and then, also, to look after our neighbours”

Freidman = “Many people want the government to protect the consumer. A much more urgent problem is to protect the consumer from the government”

Freidman = “If you put the federal government in charge of the Sahara Desert, in 5 years there’d be a shortage of sand”

Trump = “There’s nothing wrong with law and order. There’s law and order, and you shouldn’t be ashamed of it”

1) Human nature
- New right differs from traditional Conservatism
- Both believe in the moral imperfections of humanity,
- But New Right believe humans are capable of rationality, especially concerning economics and thus are able to change
– This rationality can be seen through Ayn Rand -offered a new concept of rationality through ethical egoism
= form of ethics dubbed ‘rational selfishness’ and is the basis of a new morality which can be seen as a form of radical individualism
- This is known as objectivism, described by Rand as: “the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute”

• Rand further outlines the selfishness of this view through the belief that “man must exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others not sacrificing others to himself. The pursuit of his own rational self-interest and of his own happiness is the highest moral purpose of his life”
  – Nozick also aligns with this differing view of human nature
  – He’s more optomistic - all individuals have self-ownership - owners of their own body, mind and abilities - saw individuals as having their own ends and projects to which they rationally devote themselves
• Led him to conclude that there are only individual people, different individual people, with their own individuals lives who are dignified and rational in pursuit of their own goals rather than brutishly competitive atoms (rejecting Hobbesian ideas)
• However, Nozick did concede that the preservation of life, liberty and property could not be taken for granted’ without some formal authority enforcing laws (Nightwatchman state)

2) The State
- New right state has inspirations from Rand’s idea of the morality of rational self-interest
- For rational self-interest to be the key principle of society, the state needs to be rolled back to ensure true individualism
- The state should be limited to providing armed forces, a police force and a court system in order to ensure that property is respected, and contracts enforced
- Bar these principles, the state should have no presence in the lives of individuals
- The new right opposes public spending on welfare, such as benefits, as it is both unjust according to Nozick and creates a ‘dependency’ culture
– Rand outlined that the state’s role is vital but strictly limited to acting as a police officer/nightwatchman, protecting the rights of each individual against criminals and foreign invaders (national defence)
– Nozick: minimal state is justified but also inspiring
- Allows for the emergence and peaceful co-existence of voluntarily formed communities, with their own morals, values and ideals
- As long as individuals are free to contact in or out of these communities, it allows individuals to fully explore and live their own lives
- This appears paradoxical - to strengthen the nation state by rolling back its frontiers
– To Nozick and Rand the paradox is easily explained, as if the nation state is burdened by nationalised industries and welfare, it is then harder for it to focus on its true function of order and security (resources are dispersed from the primary role)

– Rand = “When the state becomes flabby, it also becomes feeble” (aim = streamline the nation-states functions)

3) Society
- New right - divided = between neo-conservatives (want to return to a society built around authority, national identity and traditional morality) and neo-liberals (advocate a society built around individual choice)
- Neo conservatives are anti-permissive and would extend the role of the state to promote traditional family values, protection of national security and defence
- Conservatives emphasise their dedication to traditional family values by being critical of those that abandon their childcare responsibilities to ‘society’ in the form of the welfare state
– Thatcher = “there is no such thing as society, merely individuals and families”
- They largely fear significant societal change such as immigration due to its impact on social cohesion and national identity
- For neo-liberals, individual choice is not just about economics but also morality and so the state should not intervene in areas of private morality (e.g. religion)
- The state should be stripped back to the minimum to minimise tax and spending
- Neo-liberals are relaxed about immigration seeing it as a natural consequence of a free market to have a free movement of people/labour, instead of an inherent threat
– Rand emphasises the view of atomism laid out by Thatcher (no such thing as society, only a collection of individuals pursuing their own happiness)
– Also argued society should be meritocratic not hierarchical = most talented individuals will start businesses, invent new technologies and create ideas through their won talents, and trade with other rational egoists to reach their goals
(A true meritocracy based upon vested interest and collaboration to further said personal interest)

4) The economy
- New right believes market forces are the best method for the distribution and management of society’s resources
- Therefore, deep cuts in taxation, privatisation, de-regulation and tight restrictions on government spending are needed to return to free-market capitalism
– Rand believed the ideal social system is free market capitalism, which involves a ‘separation of state and economics’
- For neo-conservatives increased spending is justifiable to promote the country abroad (in regards to trade and new markets) and for national security (increased defence spending)
- Despite this, neo-liberals argue to minimise all forms of government spending in all areas where possible but accept the need for government funding of defence and justice
- However, both agree in reducing funding in areas like welfare to concentrate money on law and order, promoting the national identity and security
– Nozick argues individuals should be free from any form of legally enforced obligations in either the social or economic sphere
– For Nozick, any attempt at social justice via the redistribution of wealth and progressive taxation is an assault on liberty, as —> “Taxation of earnings from labour is on a par with forced labour. Seizing the results of someone’s labour is equivalent to seizing hours from him and directing him to carry on various activities”

Question 4

One Nation Conservatism

Answer 4

Origins
- Aims to be the updated form of traditional conservatism, in light of modern threats to traditional conservative values
- Primarily, these were:
– Industrialisation as wealth divides were increased, widening inequalities between the ruling classes and the majority
- With the rise of Communism and Socialism spreading revolutionary ideas, therefore causing a need to respond, appease and quell revolutionary sentiment
- This type of conservative is associated with Otto Von Bismarck (prime minister of Prussia (1862–73, 1873–90) and was the founder and first chancellor (1871–90) of the German Empire
– and Benjamin Disraeli, who served as Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1874-1880

Key Concepts
[I] Threat of Disorder
- Emerged from the threat to the order of state and society from socialism, class conflict and the effects/consequences of free-market capitalism
- With these fears present, one nation thought looked to update traditional conservatism’s ideas to deal with this threat
- (Primarily through a focus on paternalistic values)
- One nation conservatives were aware that to ensure social cohesion and orderly change (traditional values), new themes were needed to offset the class-consciousness politics encouraged by early socialists
- (For conservatism and traditional institutions to survive, it was impossible to fight socialism, conservatism needed to ‘change to conserve’)

[II] One Nation
- In an attempt to lessen the threat of disorder, one nation conservatism looked to emphasise national unity, in particular focus on the bonds of affection and trust that holds society together as part of a nation
- In regard to unity, Disraeli and Bismarck argued that a society’s classes were, in fact, all members of the same national ‘family’ (similar to nationhood) and that revolutionary politics represented an attack on the nation itself
- In particular, for Disraeli, the nation was not an alternative to the status quo but the essence of the status quo
- This promoted the idea that the existing nation-state should be something all classes had a vested and shared interest in defending
– (A form of ‘necessary unity’)
– Disraeli’s views of one nation and society align with Burke’s ideas of an organic society
- He outlined that all classes and groups in society are a part of this one nation as society is organic
- If one part of society were to become damaged or distressed the whole of society would become damaged

– Benjamin Disraeli = “The palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy”

[III] Paternalism
- Disraeli also offered an update to Burke’s notion of an organic relation between a nation’s richer and poorer classes, outlining that the nation’s aristocracy had a paternalistic duty to “elevate the condition of the people” (Disraeli)
- (Those with the means should support those without)
- Once this obligation was recognised by all classes, Disraeli and Bismarck argued that social and political progress could be achieved harmoniously and without the horrors of class war and revolution
- With this clear bond between groups, it is clear that the wealthy have a responsibility to the less well-off
- For this to work, the state would need to intervene in the free-market economy and society to ensure social stability
- (Conservative values – Order, peace and stability is more important than individualism/freedom and liberty)
– ‘The noblesse oblige’ – French for ‘Nobel obligation’

Real world examples
– Disraeli
* Artisan’s and Labourers’ Dwellings Improvements Act 1875 = This involved allowing local councils to buy up areas of slum dwelling in order to clear it and then rebuild. This was an attempt to elevate the working class by redeveloping the housing that they resided in.
* Housing Act
= This act allowed landlords to raise rents only after improving their properties

– MacMillan
* Life Peerages Act 1958
= An Act to make provision for the creation of life peerages carrying the right to sit and vote in the House of Lords
- Prior to the Life Peerages Act 1958, only males sat in House of Lords, with nearly all members having a hereditary title
- As well as allowing those not born into peerage to receive membership in the House of Lords, the Act also made it possible for women to sit in Parliament.
* The creation of 300,000 homes every year for five years
= following WW2, the housing minister in Winston Churchill’s government
* State Managed Economic Policies
= This PM championed a conservatism that steered a course between traditional laissez-faire economic and the socialist collectivism of state planning
- He shared the view of Burke’s belief that preserving society was of paramount importance and he viewed the debilitating effects of unemployment as a terrible threat to stability
- This PM rejected empiricism and chose rationalistic ideas of economist John Maynard Keynes to combat this threat
- His governments attempted to manage the economy in a different way, a ‘middle way’

– Cameron
* Opposition of ID Cards
= Following Labour’s proposal to introduce ID Cards nationwide, the conservatives quickly quashed this policy proposal when entering office.
* Troubled Families Initiative 2011
= The Troubled Families programme is a UK Government scheme under the Department for Communities and Local Government with the stated aim of helping troubled families turn their lives around and integrate within society.
* Big Society Initiative 2011
- This initiative designed to encourage local organisations and volunteers to provide services and improve neighbourhoods.
* Extending the Right to Buy
- Allowed the promotion of a property-owning democracy.
* Every child should have a great education (Such as turning failing schools into academies)
- Paternalism as it bridges the gap between the poor and wealthy within society.
* Increasing National minimum wage
- Paternalism as it ensures those with lesser means ae supported adequately through the state, funded by the elite

Quotes
– Cameron
“Security at every stage of life” “Britain living within its means” “Supporting the working people”

– Macmillan
- “There are three bodies no sensible man directly challenges: the Roman Catholic Church, the Brigade of Guards and the National Union of Mineworkers”
- “It is the duty of Her Majesty’s government neither to flap nor to falter”

– Disraeli
- “I must follow the people. Am I not their leader?”
- “The greatest good you can do for another is not just share your riches, but to reveal to him his own.”
- “I am a Conservative to preserve all that is good in our constitution, a Radical to remove all that is bad. I seek to preserve property and to respect order, and I equally decry the appeal to the passions of the many or the prejudices of the few.”

1) Human nature
- One nation conservatism reflects the traditional pessimistic outlook; however, their view shows progression towards change to conserve values with an enhanced modernity
- They opt for a more moderate version of ‘human imperfection’ outlined by Disraeli where there remains a need for an element of control and order to reduce the impacts of said imperfection
- To One nation conservatives, this control and order should come from those in more elite positions with their duty to help those who are poorer within society (Paternalism)

2) The State
- One Nation Conservatives believe in the need of reform to conserve the state (change to conserve), however they are firmly opposed to the state dictating the lives of its citizens and endorse a more moderate form of individualism
- They establish that the state must be strong enough to deliver the smack of firm government, taking on a minor influence from Sir Robert Peels authoritarian conservatism advocating strong law enforcement
- Yet it must never seek to supress the individual
- To do so would be contrary against everything the ‘nation’ stands for
- From this, one-nation conservatives can be seen to support an enhanced freedom of the individual
– Modern one-nation think tanks like the Tory Reform Group favour the defence of individual liberty
- During WW2, Winston Churchill opposed the introduction of ID cards, when they were introduced, he promptly sought to scrap them to “set the people free,” arguing that such a scheme was associated with totalitarian regimes and therefore incompatible with our national character
– Under the Tory-Lib Dem coalition (2010-2015), the government scrapped Labour’s ID cards programme soon after gaining office
- Some conservatives reject the concept of vaccine passports on the grounds of data protection, oppression of liberty and discrimination
– “The Tory party, unless it is a national party, is nothing” – Sybil (The Two Nations) 1845

3) Society
- Under one-nation conservatism a social hierarchy still exists as found in traditional conservatism
– Disraeli brings light to this through critically examining the gap between the elite and the working-classes stating that the classes were “as ignorant of each other’s habits, thoughts and feelings as if they were … inhabitants of different planets”
- (An imbalance in society – A threat of disorder)
– Disraeli believed this gap could be rectified by the elite classes adopting paternalism, therefore supporting the needs of the working classes
– For Disraeli, policy such as the implementation of a safety net for the unemployed would alleviate the most acute forms of poverty
- Moreover, doing so would prevent the emergence of revolutionary consciousness amongst the disaffected, in turn protecting the traditional institutions so valued by One Nation conservatives
– Disraeli outlined that the most privileged social groups not only had a practical but a moral duty to help the poorest sections
- He explained how organic society depended not purely on top-down authority but also on the governing elite’s acceptance of social responsibility for the less fortunate
– Disraeli appealed to the rapid advancements under an industrialised capitalist society and the ensuing growth of socially liberal policy to proclaim that conservative paternalism should now embrace social reform or welfarism to strengthen national unity and thus preserve ‘one nation’

4) The economy
– Disraeli wrote at a time of growing industrialisation, economic inequality, and revolutionary upheaval (in Continental Europe with the industrial revolution causing wealth disparities and the spread of socialist ideals)
- He aimed to draw attention to the danger of Britain being divided into ‘two nations: the rich and the poor’ under an unchecked capitalism
– Thus, Disraeli opted for a form of intervention known as ‘tory welfarism’.
- The high point of this ‘tory welfarism’ under the One Nation tradition was reached in the 1950s and 60s, when conservative governments in the UK and elsewhere had come to practice a version of Keynesian social democracy, managing the economy in line with a goal of full employment and supporting enlarged welfare provision
- This stance was based on a ‘middle way’ between laissez-fare liberalism and socialism. Conservatism was the way of moderation and sought to balance individualism and collectivism (collective interests above individual interests)
– This was best seen in the UK under Harold Macmillan’s middle way (1957-63)
– As Prime Minister, he advocated what he called ‘planned capitalism’, which combined state ownership, regulation of economic activity as well as a drive towards private business growth

Question 5

Political Moral Conservatism

Answer 5

1) Natural Aristocracy / Inequality

[I] Summary:
- Traditional conservatism has sought to temper the effects of a capitalism economy with a view of sustaining a society based on property ownership and inequality
- Traditional conservatives view inequality as a consequence of capitalism; however they believe wealth inequality is natural and a reflection of the different talents, hard work and effort of individuals in society
- The desire to impose wealth equality on society is immoral, as it is not rooted in the natural justice idea that people should benefit from their own hard work
- Within the conservative view of organicism, they acknowledge that some areas are more important than others and inequality is natural
- The organic society is hierarchical: there’s a natural order in where each individual has their place
- Individuals are of unequal talents and ability
– Hobbes, Burke and Oakeshott saw this as a practical reality of human existence

[II] Justification:
a) Natural = For generations, the upper class had been raised to govern at all level and had also been educated in the values of social obligation and public service
b) Noblesse Oblige = Long standing practice of elite rule ensured those in positions of authority could draw on class and family traditions of leadership, duty and social responsibility
- This meant they were best placed to make decisions on behalf of society as a whole
c) Talent = The natural ability instilled within an individual that make them better able to form a certain role
- People do bot have the same abilities, talents and energy
- So, it is ‘natural’ that society should reflect this and it is ‘artificial’ to consider all humans as equal
d) Jobs = A hierarchy is a functional necessity because different people have to carry out different jobs and are rewarded differently (in pay and status) depending on the contribution they make
- Hierarchy ensures that everyone works together harmoniously for the overall health of the organic state

[III] Quotes/Thinkers:
– Michael Oakeshott = The idea of tradition and inequality through means of a justification for defending established elitist institutions such as the House of Lords or the Electoral College
– Thomas Hobbes = Society was to be ruled by an absolute monarch governing a ‘common-wealth’ arranged by rank and influence
– Edmund Burke = The aristocracy should lead as they were wiser, stronger and more opulent than their inferiors and they had a responsibility for the lower orders

– Jefferson = “For I agree with you that there is a natural aristocracy among men. The grounds of this are virtue and talents”

– Rousseau = “I conceive two species of inequality among men; one which I call natural, or physical inequality, because it is established by nature, and consists in the difference of age, health, bodily strength, and the qualities of the mind, or of the soul; the other which may be termed moral, or political inequality, because it depends on a kind of convention, and is established, or at least authorized, by the common consent of mankind”

[IV] Examples:
- The inequality faced on account of birth is natural because one cannot choose the family to be born in
- The poor are deprived of sufficient healthcare and competitive education severely impacting their social mobility
- This in turn promotes a structured, hierarchical society where those born into more affluent settings reach greater levels

– Edward George Geoffrey Smith-Stanley (14th Earl of Derby, Prime Minister)
– As Chief Secretary for Ireland in Grey’s government (1830) he established a board of national education for Ireland (1831)
– He became Colonial Secretary (1833) and took charge of the bill to abolish slavery

– Robert Gascoyne-Cecil (3rd Marquess of Salisbury, Prime Minister)
– The Local Government Act (1888)- transferred the administration of counties to elected county councils
– Free Education Act (1891) - abolished fees for primary education

2) Authority from above
[I] Summary:
- Conservatives believe that authority from above is natural and a beneficial necessity that is rooted in social institutions, offering guidance, security and support
- This idea refers to those in higher positions of society who are best positioned to make decisions on society’s behalf
- Their legitimacy comes naturally from within hierarchy, and those below them in hierarchy are obliged to obey (Hard Paternalism)
- This form of authority that conservatives believe in operates in a top-down manner, shaping relationships between different social groups and spreads through all social institutions
- Authority should therefore reside with political leaders, employers, managers, teachers, parents and so on
- This form of leadership/authority exercised offers discipline but also a source of admiration to be respected and accepted by those lower down

[II] Justification:
- Conservatives argue that authority performs a vital and positive functions by providing humans with security, direction and support
- (Such as the authority provided by law enforcement or government officials)
- Authority also promotes social cohesion by giving a clear sense of how they ‘fit’ within society and what they are expected to do
- (Such as New Right ideas of integration and minority rights - Immigrants should accept their lower position in society compared to those of the host culture)

[III] Quotes/Thinkers:
- Notions of Hard Paternalism - based off Hobbes idea = society could only exist when stability, authority and order were present
- Key requirement to this was obedience and loyalty to the sovereign
– Hobbes = “It is not wisdom but authority that makes a Law”

– G.K. Chesterton = (The transfer of institutional authority from generation to generation) = “tradition means giving votes to … our ancestors”

– Machiavelli’s ‘The Prince’ (1532) argued - people need authority to prevent social collapse
- Through his work, he argued that it is better for a statesman to be feared than loved as = “the ends justify the means”

[IV] Examples:
- All forms of govt regardless of ideological backing have a natural hierarchy as this is needed for the successful dispersal of tasks, maintenance of authority and clear guidance

3) The Church
[I] Summary
- Church is a valuable institution that provides stability and social cohesion
- The role of the church can be seen in the conservative attachment to tradition
- This attachment to tradition stems from the institutions, customs and practices of a society that has developed over time

[II] Justification
- This justification for tradition originally had original roots
- Conservatives who believed that the world was created by a divine being (God) saw society’s institutions and practices of society as ‘God-given’
- Conservatives believe anyone who attempts to alter these longstanding social arrangements are challenging the will of God and consequently are likely to undermine society, rather than improving it
- Thus, it provides social cohesion should everyone agree with this view and role of the church

[III] Quotes/Thinkers
– Edmund Burke and writer G.K Chesterton (1874-1936) maintain that traditional institutions like that of the church constitute the accumulated wisdom of the past
- They have demonstrated their value to earlier societies and proved they are ‘fit for purpose’ as they have ‘stood the test of time’
- For this reason, they should be preserved so that current and future generations can benefit from them
- This clearly establishes continuity and social stability

– Disraeli
– “Tradition has allowed us to create the greatest empire of all time”
– Tradition has survived the test of time and brought about strength.
“Invisible customs that shape our lives”
– Institutions such as the Church of England.
“England cannot begin again” – rejection of radical change

[IV] Examples
- This commitment toward the church can be seen under Disraeli
– In his speeches at Manchester and Crystal palace (1872) Disraeli signalled his determination to uphold traditional British institutions such as the monarchy and the Church of England

• The prominence of the Church in conservative thought is shown as around half of Catholic registered voters in the US describe themselves as Republicans, while 47% identify with the Democratic Party
  – In 2017 General election, 58% of Anglicans voters voted for the conservatives, compared to 28% for Labour according to the British Election Study

4) The family
[I] Summary
- The family is regarded as an essential unit of the organic society that embodies natural hierarchy
- Traditional conservatism upholds that there are more moral values, traditional marriage and nuclear family, that have provided stability and certainty within society
- Traditional conservative relationship with society can be seen through the paternalistic view of society
- Society is natural, organic and living, with individuals bound together by common ties, obligations and responsibilities, much like a family

[II] Justification
- Burke argued that the ‘natural inequality/aristocracy’ presided over society much like a father did to his family; the social elite provides leadership because of its innate or hereditary abilities, just as a father exercises authority, ensuring protection and providing guidance to their child
- Family, like inequality are natural within society (linked to paternalism)

[III] Quotes/Thinkers
– Thatcher believed Victorian family values were the way to improve society, through people bettering themselves
– For Thatcher conventional marriage and a nuclear family were the building blocks
– Burke’s concept of ‘little platoons’ outlined how individuals contained within platoons can support each other’s growth and development as natural hierarchy, therefore an elite class will continue to exist
- Supporting the traditional structure of paternalism
- This relates to the idea of family as the one in the authority (father) provides adequate means to support the child (the one with lesser means) within a community

[IV] Examples
– One example of this impact on society was the inclusion of Section 28 of the Local Government Act (1988)
- The controversial clause stated that a local authority shall not “promote the teaching in any maintained school of the acceptability of homosexuality as a pretended family relationship”
– Rishi Sunak recently announced the investment of £500m from the government to support families, which will include the creation of a network of “family hubs” across England to offer advice and guidance
– 2015 = Conservatives stated they would be ‘backing the institution of marriage in our society’ by retaining the transferable tax allowance between married spouses and undertaking to ensure that ‘the transferable amount will always rise at least in line with the Personal Allowance’
– 2019 Conservative Manifesto stated ‘Raising a family should be the most fulfilling experience of your life. But for too many parents, the costs of childcare are a heavy burden. We want to give parents the freedom, support and choice to look after their children in the way that works best for them. We will establish a new £1 billion fund to help create more high quality, affordable childcare, including before and after school and during the school holidays’
– Arguably, while supporting the concept of family and social cohesion, does this not degrade the traditional roles of family members and the concept of a naturally developing nuclear family?