Socialism Flashcards
Define and briefly outline Socialism as a whole
Socialism is an ideology that is characterised by its opposition to capitalism and its aim to offer a more humane and socially beneficial alternative. At the heart of socialism is a view of humans as social beings connected by their shared humanity. Socialists prioritise cooperation over competition and value equality, especially social equality, as the central tenet of socialism. They believe that social equality is crucial for societal stability, cohesion, and freedom, as it addresses material needs and forms the basis for personal growth. However, socialism encompasses a wide range of divisions and competing traditions centred on differing views regarding the ‘means’ (how socialism should be achieved) and ‘ends’ (the vision of the future socialist society).
For instance, communists or Marxists typically advocate revolution to eliminate capitalism and establish a classless society with communal ownership of resources. On the other hand, democratic socialists or social democrats favour a gradual approach, seeking to reform or humanise the capitalist system by reducing material disparities and eradicating poverty.
Outline tensions over human nature
Liberalism and socialism both have an optimistic view of human nature, making them ‘progressive’ ideologies. However, they differ in their reasons for this optimism. Liberals believe individuals are naturally self-reliant, while socialists see people as naturally cooperative and altruistic. Socialists argue that humans seek solidarity and comradeship, in contrast to liberals who emphasise autonomy and independence. Socialism acknowledges that external factors have diluted mankind’s true nature, believing that human nature is malleable and can be improved.
Outline Collectivism as a Core Idea
Collectivism is the belief that cooperative human efforts have more practical and moral importance than individual pursuits. It suggests that human nature is inherently social and emphasises the significance of social groups, such as classes or nations, as political entities.
Outline Collectivism as a key Core idea
Some view collectivism as the opposite of individualism, asserting that it prioritises collective over individual interests. Additionally, collectivism is sometimes associated with the state as the means through which collective interests are protected, implying that an increase in state responsibilities signifies the spread of collectivist ideals. Socialists endorsed collectivism for two fundamental reasons.
From a moral perspective, the interests of the group - such as a society or a community - should take priority over individual self-interest. Collective effort encourages social unity and a sense of social responsibility towards others. In practical economic terms, collectivism utilises the capabilities of the whole of society efficiently, avoiding the wastefulness and limited impact of competitive individual effort inherent in the capitalist economy. Collectivism, therefore, reflects the socialist view that it is more important to pursue the interests of a society or a community rather than individual self-interest.
Collectivism, rooted in socialist ideology, emphasises human beings’ innate social nature and their preference for living in communities. Socialists argue that individuals are shaped by their social circumstances and that true freedom and fulfilment come from belonging to a collective society. They advocate for state intervention and planning to promote collective goals and ensure equitable distribution of resources.
Outline different strands view on collectivism
Different strands of socialism vary in their commitment to collectivism, ranging from Marxist calls for complete state control of production to moderate approaches that mix state intervention with elements of free-market capitalism. The pursuit of collectivism aims to rectify the inequalities of capitalism by redistributing wealth and resources, often through nationalisation of industries or progressive taxation.
Critics of collectivism argue that it suppresses individuality and diversity while leading to the growth of state power and erosion of individual freedoms. Since the 1970s, there has been a diminishing emphasis on collectivism among socialists, driven by concerns about dependency culture and economic competitiveness. The collapse of the Soviet Union further contributed to the decline of collectivist ideologies.
Outline Common Humanity as a Core idea of Socialism
Socialists see humans as social creatures with a tendency towards co-operation, sociability and humans naturally prefer to cooperate with, rather than compete against, each other. In fact the individual cannot be understood without reference to society, because human behaviour is socially determined. Socialists advocate cooperation based on their positive view of human nature. They argue that humans are naturally inclined to work together for the common good and that co-operative effort produces the best results for society. Co-operation also reinforces and reflects the socialist idea of a common humanity, in both moral and economic terms. People who cooperate rather than compete with each other form connections based on understanding, respect and mutual support. They also channel the capabilities of the whole group or community, rather than just the potential of a single individual.
By contrast, according to the socialist view, competition (particularly within a capitalist economy) is wasteful, promotes social divisions and generates conflict, hostility and resentment. Socialists maintain that capitalist economic competition sets one person against another, a process that encourages people to reject or disregard their common humanity (and social nature) rather than accept it. It encourages humans to be self-centred and belligerent. This emphasis on a common humanity has led socialists to conclude that human motivation can be driven not just by material considerations but also by a moral view of people’s role in society. People should work hard in order to improve their society or community because they have a sense of responsibility for other humans, particularly the least fortunate. The moral incentive to improve society rests on the acceptance of a common humanity.
Outline the further effects of Common Humanity
Finally the belief in a common humanity has led socialists to support an interventionist role for the state. Marxists and state socialists argue that the agency of the state can be used to control production and distribution for the benefit of everyone. Social democrats also advocate state intervention in a more limited form of welfare and redistribution programmes, to help those in the greatest need.
Outline Equality as a Core Idea of Socialism
The socialist perspective on human nature centers on the pursuit of equality, not in the sense of everyone being identical in abilities, but rather in society treating individuals fairly in terms of rewards and material circumstances. Socialists reject the notion of equality of opportunity, arguing it perpetuates inherent societal inequalities. There are varying degrees of commitment to equality among different socialist factions, ranging from absolute social equality advocated by Marxists to relative social equality pursued by social democrats.
Social equality, according to socialists, not only ensures fairness but also reinforces collectivism and cooperation within society. It helps satisfy basic human needs and promotes human fulfillment by ensuring equitable distribution of wealth and resources.
Common ownership is endorsed as a means to address the drawbacks of private property, including fostering materialism and social conflict. Historically, socialists have implemented common ownership through state control or nationalization of industries, though more moderate approaches have also been pursued. However, recent socialist parties have shifted focus away from common ownership towards other objectives.
Outline some alternative explanations to Common Ownership
Alternative approaches to common ownership include democratic workplace management advocated by some socialists, syndicalism promoting workers’ control via trade unions, and the cooperative movement emphasizing democratic ownership and profit sharing among members.
Outline Social Class as a Core idea in Socialism
In the Communist Manifesto (1848), Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels boldly proclaim that “the history of all hitherto societies is the history of class conflict.” They believe that the social classes can be distinguished between those who own the means of production (the bourgeoisie) and those who work the means of production (the proletariat). The means of production is a Marxist term which refers to those elements of the production process that can be legally owned such as land and machinery. Moreover, the means of production is both physical and mental. The former is focused upon economic resources whereas the mental means of production refers to how the media serves the interests of the capitalist elite (Miliband, 1973 & 1982). With regards to the latter, Marx perceived that “the ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas.”
According to the socialist analysis of the economic system, the bourgeoisie have every incentive to pay workers the lowest wage possible (and offer the poorest working conditions) in order to maximise profit. If an employee refuses to accept this arrangement, they can be threatened with the sack and be replaced by members of the reserve army of labour. Work undertaken by the reserve army of labour is characterised by low-wages, low-status, little or no job security, zero-hours contracts and poor working conditions.
Under the exploitative conditions of the capitalist economic system, the surplus value of the proletariat is appropriated by the bourgeoisie. Marxists claim that this leads to an acute sense of alienation because workers do not benefit from the products being made. They become de-personalised from their own work and the fruits of their labour are stolen by the bourgeoisie. The interests of these two social classes are therefore in conflict. This represents a key area of disagreement between socialists and conservatives
Outline Worker’s Control as a Core Idea
This is concerned with the importance and the extent of control over the economy and/or state and how it is to be achieved
Democratic socialists advocate workers’ control on two grounds. Firstly, it will ensure a more equitable distribution of economic resources. Decisions will thereby be taken for the benefit of all members of the workforce rather than merely shareholders and CEO’s. Secondly, workers’ control will abolish class distinctions. Both are important goals within socialism and form part of a broader attempt to establish a society centred around equality and social justice. Democratic socialism is built upon the premise that the parliamentary route is the more effective towards socialism. It is based on the seemingly irrefutable argument that those who lack the means of production and property outnumber members of the bourgeoisie. Workers’ control is also promoted by those on the far-left of the political spectrum.
The Marxist analysis of society is embedded within an understanding of social class, most notably the twin concepts of class struggle and class consciousness. The former refers to the inherent struggle within a capitalist society between the forces of capital and the forces of labour. In the Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx famously argued that all hitherto societies were based upon class conflict. For instance, the transition from feudalism to capitalism marked a struggle between the landed aristocracy and the emerging middle-class. Class consciousness however is a term used to describe a stage under capitalism at which the proletariat becomes aware of their exploitation at the hands of the bourgeoisie. In doing so, a potentially revolutionary class of people emerges. Class consciousness eventually results in the replacement of capitalism with a system run for the benefit of the workers.
Outline Revolutionary Socialism as Strand of Socialism
Many early socialists were worried that they were far away from power and that they would be prevented achieving their aims by a capitalist conservative establishment.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels discussed a ‘proletarian revolution’ whereby the class-conscious working class would rise up against capitalism and overthrow it.
Revolutionary tactics were attractive to socialists for two reasons. Firstly, industrialism and capitalism in the 19th century were producing mass poverty and social inequality, so the working classes wanted a chance to change their circumstances. Secondly, the working classes had very few alternatives to revolution- there was no real representation or way of engaging in political life. In monarchies, the country was dominated by royalty and privilege. In constitutional democracies, the vote was restricted. A revolution was the only viable way of achieving socialist goals.
Revolutionary socialists also believe that the state is a device of class oppression, acting for ‘capital’ against ‘labour’. This means that the political state will always reflect and preach the interests of the property-owning classes. Therefore, in order to build socialism, the ‘bourgeois’ state must be overthrown, resulting in a total transformation of society. This would be the only way of ensuring the revolution would succeed.
Outline Social democracy as a Strand of Socialism
Social democracy developed during the early twentieth century and really began to become accepted in the years after 1945.It uses socialist principles but has different aims and methods to that of revolutionary socialism. After Britain and other Western nations recovered from the traumas of World War Two the poorer parts of society, supported by many who were better off, demanded more from their state. Many people felt that not only should they be better supported by the nation for the work and services they provided but also that society as a whole would benefit from a raise in living standards created by the state.
The foundations for social democracy are based upon moral thinking- the idea that socialism is the ethically right thing to do in a civilised world. Social democracy theorists claim that as humans want to be good then a socialist way of acting is the only moral solution in how society should be developed. People such as William Morris used humanist ideas to support social democracy (humanism is an idea that says that the satisfaction of all peoples needs should be a priority of society).
Social democrats supported their ideas with the principle of social justice; the idea that people should have a greater equality of wealth and therefore opportunity as this is the only fair way to run a society.
The goals of revolutionary socialism were seen by social democrats as too extreme because they wanted to completely reorder society and remove capitalism, which was viewed as irredeemable (cannot be made good).However, by the twentieth century some socialists had come to believe that these views were inaccurate. People such as Eduard Bernstein advocated evolutionary socialism which argued that Marxism needed revising or adapting (revisionism).
Revisionists argued several main ideas. They claimed that capitalism had not been shown to be collapsing and was not necessarily doomed (as predicted by Marx), but it needed to be used for the whole of society.
Outline third way as an Strand of Socialism
In response to the crisis faced by social democracy in the 1980s and 90s, socialist parties began to move towards ‘neo-revisionism’, also known as the ‘third way’. The third way attempted to navigate a path between traditional social democracy and free-market neoliberalism.
Key ideas of the third way include:
- Primacy of the market: neo-revisionists reject top-down state intervention and support a dynamic market economy as the best way of generating wealth. A globalised, capitalist economy is therefore accepted
- Value of community and moral responsibility: emphasising that people have moral links and responsibilities to their community, attempting to balance rights with responsibilities
- Society bases on consensus and harmony: to move away from traditional class divisions. Values such as fairness and self-reliance should be promoted
- Social inclusion: emphasis on equality of opportunity to create a meritocracy. Tony Blair, a key figure associated with the third way, suggested that welfare should be a ‘hand up, not a handout’. Welfare should therefore be more specifically targeted at getting people into work, for instance
- Competition/market state: the state should focus on social investment, for instance in education, employment and training, in order to boost economic growth and improve a nation’s standing in the world economy
Outline the tensions of Socialism in Human nature
All socialists believe that human nature is malleable and improves, ‘plastic’ not permanent. Yet some socialists, such as Marx, believe that human nature is especially susceptible to whichever economic system it lives under. Therefore, people are likely to suffer a ‘false consciousness’ that can be cured only by revolution and authoritarian rule. Other socialists, including revisionist like Giddens argue that human nature can prosper under capitalism yet appreciate the importance of core socialist beliefs such as cooperation, fraternity and collectivism
Outline the tensions within Socialism in Society
By definition, all socialists see our social environment (i.e. society) as the crucial determinant of our personalities. So if society can be improved (i.e. made more equal and fraternal, improvements in our attitude and behaviour will follow. Yet socialists disagree about whether society can be improved gradually. Revolutionary socialists, like Marx and the Frankfurt School, believe that existing society is so ‘sick’ and so inimical to socialist values that only a revolution can provide the necessary ‘shock therapy’. Other fundamental socialists like Beatrice Webb, believe society can be ‘gradually’ improved, and socialism values gradually more entrenched, by a series of reforms that gradually curtail private ownership[. Revisionists like Crosland and Giddens also argue that society can be gradually improved and believe such improvements can occur alongside private poetry and capitalism
Outline the tensions within Socialism in terms of The State
unlike collectivist anarchists, socialists believe a state is vital to the promotion of core socialist values. But they differ dramatically about what kind of state is needed. Marx and orthodox communists believed the existing capitalist state would have to be destroyed by revolution and replaced by a dictatorship of the proletariat, which, in turn, would ‘wither away’ to produce stateless communism. Democratic socialists like Webb and revisionists like Crosland and Giddens believed that the existing state can be used to steer society towards socialist values and that the traditional state (in capitalist society) requires constitutional reform rather than abolition
Outline tensions within Socialism in terms of The Economy
Fundamentalist socialists (like Marx, Luxemburg and Webb) believe socialism is incompatible with a capitalist economy based on private property. Marxisits and orthodox communist believe that a new, non-capitalist economy should be created quickly, via revolution, while democratic socialists believe such a non-capitalist economy will be created gradually, via a series of elected socialist governments. By definition, revisionists believed socialism is possible within a capitalist economy. Social democracy revisionists like Crosland believe that the economy should be mixed and run along Keynesian lines by governments. Third Way revisionists like Giddens believe the economy should eb neo-liberal, privatised and deregulated, claiming this will produce a greater tax yield and thus more public spending
Outline the difference in key thinkers view on Human nature
Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels (Revolutionary) - Humans are social, therefore, common humanity can only be expressed under communism. Human nature, originally fraternal & altruistic, has been contaminated by capitalism, instilling the ‘false consciousness’ of bourgeois values. Revolutionary socialism, however, will repair this. “Humans are natural”
Rosa Luxemburg (Revolutionary) - Agreed with Marx about human nature. Human nature has not been damaged to the extent Marx alleged. Fraternity & altruism still flourish in working-class communities punished by capitalist economics. “Before a revolution happens, it is seen as being impossible”
Beatrice Webb (Evolutionary Socialist) - Same as Marx. The damage inflicted by capitalism upon the human psyche will be compounded only by violent revolution. Humanity needs to be guided back, gradually, to its original, cooperative condition. “Nature still refuses to co-operate by making rich people innately superior to the poor people”
Anthony Crosland Social (Democrat)- Humans naturally oppose inequality. Capitalism can be reformed. Human nature has a powerful sense of ‘fairness’ & an innate objection to huge inequalities of outcome.
Anthony Giddens (Third Way)- Capitalism is liberating – individuals would find more difficult to develop as society & the individual blurs. Human nature has been shaped by socio-economic conditions. The pro-fairness instinct is still present, but it now competes with a sharpened sense of individual aspiration.
Outline Key thinkers views on The State
Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels (Revolutionary) - The state is corrupt and serves the capitalists – i.e. it oppresses. After revolution by proletariat, the state will wither away and there will be common ownership & humanity will reach its peak. The existing liberal-bourgeois state is a tool of the dominant capitalist class; it must be destroyed by revolution & replaced by a new socialist state: the dictatorship of the proletariat. “The existence of state is inseparable from the existence of slavery”
Rosa Luxemburg (Revolutionary) - After revolution, there should be democracy not proletariat dictatorship. Evolutionary socialism flawed as it left capitalism intact. The existing capitalist state must be destroyed by revolution, but one arising from strike action. The replacement state should be a genuine democracy, complete with free speech & free elections. “Without general elections… life dies in every institution”
Beatrice Webb (Evolutionary Socialist) - Revolution occurs via ballot box rather than revolution. If harnessed to universal suffrage, the existing state could be used to effect a gradual transition to socialism. ‘Inevitability of gradualness’ – working class will vote for socialists
Anthony Crosland Social (Democrat)- The state should manage capitalism – universal social benefits. Democratic socialist governments (e.g. Labour 1945-1951) prove that the existing state can be used to effect radical, socialist change. “Evolutionary & revolutionary philosophies of progress have proved false”
Anthony Giddens (Third Way)- The state should manage capitalism – universal social benefits. Democratic socialist governments (e.g. Labour 1945-1951) prove that the existing state can be used to effect radical, socialist change. “Evolutionary & revolutionary philosophies of progress have proved false”
Outline Key thinkers views on The Society
Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels (Revolutionary) - Proletariat will achieve class consciousness- dialect- clash of values between each stage of history when ruling class’s values aren’t valued by majority. Capitalist society works only in favour of the bourgeoise. Capitalist society is sickeningly yet fatally, defined by class interests & class conflict. A communist society will be the perfect ‘end of history’. “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles’
Rosa Luxemburg (Revolutionary) - Socialism should be internationalist. Capitalism didn’t need final stage to be abolished. Ditto Marx on class consciousness needed to overthrow bourgeoise. Capitalist society is class- ridden & morally indefensible, yet alternative societies, or sub-cultures, exist within downtrodden proletarian communities- “Those who do not move do not notice their chains”
Beatrice Webb (Evolutionary Socialist) - Worker’s control achieved through evolutionary means - “revolutions are chaotic, inefficient and counter-productive” an unpredictability she… The poverty & inequalities of a capitalist society continue to depress human potential while fostering regressive competition. Technocratic elite will “impregnate all existing forces of society” couldn’t countenance
Anthony Crosland Social (Democrat) - Society is increasingly complicated, altered by the emergence of new social groups compromising ‘meritocratic’ mangers & ‘classless’ technocrats. “Equality of opportunity isn’t enough, there should be redistribution” and “Marx has little or nothing to offer the contemporary society”
Anthony Giddens (Third Way) - Neo-liberal ideas of economic empowerment with cohesion of social democracy’s view of society - individualism + community. Society has undergone embourgeoisement- egalitarians must harness, rather than deny, these forces. “Achieving control over change, in respect to lifestyle, demands an engagement with the outer social world rather than a retreat from it”
Outline Key thinkers views on the economy
Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels (Revolutionary) - Capitalism only benefits a tiny majority. Common ownership- all own the means of production. Bourgeoise exploited people. Abolition of private poverty. Capitalism is corrupt, inefficient & ultimately self-destructive. It should - & will- be placed by an economy based on collective ownership
Rosa Luxemburg (Revolutionary) - Save view as Marx on capitalism. Common ownership. Capitalism is more resilient than Marx allowed. Its necessary destruction & replacement by an economy based on worker’s control, will require determination & solidarity among the proletariat. “The insanity or our capitalist economy
Beatrice Webb (Evolutionary Socialist) - Expansion of state (workers suffrage causes this as they vote for socialism) + common ownership. A chaotic capitalist economy will gradually be replaced by one which secures for workers the full fruits of their labour, based upon a
common ownership of the means of production. “The inevitability of gradualness”
Anthony Crosland Social (Democrat) - Keynesian economics. Expand welfare state. Constant growth, full
employment. A mixed economy, underpinned by limited public ownership & Keynesian capitalism, will finance
spending necessary the secure equality. “What one generation sees as a luxury, the next sees as a necessity”
Anthony Giddens (Third Way) - Free-market enriches society, socialism must harness free- market while neutralising its bad effects on community and fraternity.
A neo-liberal economy, propelled by privatisation & deregulation, will provide huge tax yields. This will finance huge increases in public spending which will secure greater equality of opportunity. “The New mixed economy looks… for a synergy between public & private
sectors”
Give an example of revolutionary socialism in real life
Revolutionary socialism has been seen through the establishment of the Soviet Union, the People’s Republic of China, and the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. In each case, the existing order was overthrown and replaced with a one-party state which controlled the economy. Opposition was removed and totalitarian methods were used to remove dissent. The credibility of revolutionary socialism was damaged by the collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s/early 1990s.
Define Revisionism
Revisionism is usually applied to those on the far-left of the political spectrum who seek to modify Marxist theory in some manner without rejecting its core argument. It is also important to note that revisionism is also a term of abuse within the labour movement.
Outline Revisionism as a means and ends
One of the leading proponents of revisionism within the labour movement is Eduard Bernstein (1961). As a member of the German Social Democratic Party, Bernstein argued that the party’s ideological stance had to recognise the material aspirations of the working-class. In doing so, the SPD could appear more credible as an electoral force and thereby gain office to implement a left-wing agenda. Bernstein also argued that the ends were more important than the conventional Marxist means of state ownership (which could be gradually socialised in accordance with the strategy of incrementalism). As such, Bernstein and his associate Karl Kautsky claimed that the goal of a society built upon social justice was more important than the means.
From a more left-wing standpoint, the French theorist and activist Louis Althusser sought to modify the original teachings of Marx towards modern society. Althusser argued that the media and other institutions transmit a set of bourgeoisie values and beliefs. What he called the ideological state apparatus is utilised by the ruling class to prevent the growth of class consciousness amongst members of the subject class. Along with the church and the education system, the media portrays capitalism and its resultant class conflict as natural and inevitable. What is routinely presented as ‘common sense’ is designed therefore to serve an ideological purpose. The ideological state apparatus ultimately enables the hegemony of the bourgeoisie to be maintained from one generation to the next.
Define fundamentalists
Fundamentalist – someone who seeks to abolish capitalism and replace it with a different system
Outline the Key principles that fundamentalists and revisionists agree on ?
Revisionists and fundamentalists agree on the fundamental principles of socialism. They all take an optimistic view on human nature, arguing that humans are naturally cooperative, generous and altruistic.
- Karl Marx and Engle’s argue that human nature is fraternal but, has been contaminated by capitalism.
- Anthony Crosland argues that human nature has a powerful sense of fairness and an innate objection to inequality. They also agree on the need for greater equality and on the concept of ‘foundational equality’ . This is the idea that all humans are born with natural equal rights and therefore, deserve equal opportunities. They all agree that greater equality in society is needed to ensure that foundational equality is not disregarded.
- Marx and Engles argued were the first to recognise class inequalities, and they argued that this was due to the exploitation of the bourgeoise of the proletariat. They believed that the only way to reduce such inequality was to overthrow the capitalist state and to create a new economy.
- Webb agreed on the need for greater equality. This can be seen in her Royal commission which argued that the state should provide guaranteed wages, nourishment and training, to ensure greater equality.
- Similarly, Crosland argued for the importance of improved equality. This can be seen in his introduction of comprehensive schools to improve equality of opportunity.
Outline the Key principles that fundamentalists and revisionists disagree on the (Abolition of capitalism)
However, they differ on their views that capitalism should be abolished as part of their key principles.
Revolutionary and Evolutionary socialists believe that capitalism should be abolished as it promotes inequality by enforcing differences between the bourgeoise and the proletariat.
Marx and Engels claimed that capitalism is corrupt, inefficient and ultimately self destructive. They argued that it was a system of corruption where the bourgeoise exploits the proletariat. They argue that it It should and will be completely replaced by an economy based on collective ownership and by a dictatorship of the proletariat.
In agreement Webb also argues that capitalism is chaotic and should be replaced completely. She argued that it was the cause of ‘crippling poverty and demeaning inequality’, and that this could only be resolved through its abolition via a socialist state.
In comparison to this, democratic socialists and third way thinkers Crosland and Giddens believe that capitalism can be used to enhance inequality. Meaning it should be reformed rather than abolished.
Crosland argued that a mixed economy, underpinned by limited public ownership and Keynesian capitalism, will finance the greater public spending necessary to secure equality.
Giddens argued that a Neo liberal economy, propelled by privatisation and deregulation, will provide huge tax yields. This will finance huge increases in public spending, which will secure greater equality of opportunity. Therefore, they see that there can be benefits in capitalism.
Outline the Key principles that fundamentalists and revisionists disagree on the (Methodology)
There is also stark disagreement between revisionists and fundamentalists on the methods that should be used to adapt and establish a socialist system.
- Revolutionary fundamentalists such as Marx and Engle’s argue that a revolution of the proletariat is needed to overthrow and replace the capitalist state. They believe that this is inevitable due to the class consciousness of the proletariat who will want to abolish the capitalists who exploit them.
- To contrast, although Webb is also a fundamentalist she argues that change will happen through the ‘inevitability of gradualness’. She criticises the methods of Marx and argues that revolutions are dangerous. Instead a socialist state will gradually implement new policy.
- In contrast to both Webb and Marx, revisionists argue that there is no need for a revolution or for the gradual replacement of capitalism. Instead they argue that a socialist state could use the positives of capitalism to achieve socialist goals.
- Where Marx and Engles stress the importance of collective ownership, Third way socialists such as Giddens advocate free-markets and privatisation. This is because they believe that this will produce increased tax yields which would fund wealth redistribution.
- Similarly, social Democrat Antony Crosland argued that equality could be achieved through a managed capitalist economy. He believed that the future of socialist governments was not more common ownership but more public spending and better welfare.
- This contrasts both Webb and Marx who were staunch advocates on the importance of common ownership.
- Therefore, their methods are very different.
To what extent do socialists agree on both the means and ends of socialism
An area of disagreement here concerns whether capitalism is compatible or incompatible with the compassionate socialist society that is believed to be intrinsic in human nature. Revolutionary socialists like Marx view capitalism as a disruption to this utopia they champion for through revolution and social democrats along with the Third Way believe it may succeed under this egoistic system. Evolutionary socialists Agree that capitalism could have a corrupting effect on human nature, but they thought that even without violent revolution, people were already expressing their natural preference; collective action. This is shown by establishing their own cooperatives and trade unions. Webb believed that the clear and strong economic and moral case for socialism made it possible to persuade rational human beings that socialism was in everyone’s best interest and trying without human nature. Giddens rejects state intervention and accepts the free market in the economy as he believes there is no alternative to capitalism. He embraces this pragmatic approach to socialism by wanting to limit the welfare state to avoid creating a dependency culture. He believes in wealth creation rather than re-distribution. The role of public ownership in the emergence of a socialist society. Democratic socialists and fundamentalist strands of socialism view public ownership as an end rather than as a means of a socialist society. Social democrats view it as a means which is not sacred and Third Way socialists do not regard it as a means or ends. Hence, Blair’s revoking of Clause 4 from the Labour constitution which committed the party to public ownership.
One way in which socialists agree over means rather than ends is through the idea of collectivism. The socialist stance on collectivism rests upon an assumption that the number of those disadvantaged by the unfettered marketplace is far greater than those who benefit. Numerically, those who might be classed as members of the proletariat are greater than those who might be classed as the bourgeoisie. This is particularly striking in the context of the global economy, where the benefits and rewards are distributed in a dramatically uneven manner. According to the socialist argument, the accumulation of wealth within a system based upon capitalism is neither fair nor justifiable. Despite what those on the right of the political spectrum might claim, wealth does not trickle down towards all members of society. Even in one of the wealthiest economies in the world, signs of extreme wealth exist only a few blocks away from food banks and homeless people sleeping rough. Socialists are all united behind the ideal that society should be more equal and egalitarian to achieve a collective society. Cooperation with others is better than individualism, as humans are naturally altruistic social beings. The alternative to this- an individual self-striving society (capitalism)- often leads to conflict and unnecessary competition. Collective human effort is of both greater practical and moral value than the effort of individuals in society. Anthony Crosland = action taken by groups is more effective than action taken by individuals, as ‘capitalism had matured’ enough to cooperate with trade unions like ‘Unite the Union’ (founded in 2007, ensures all employees get the best representation in the workplace). Utopian socialists Charles Fourier and Robert Owen argued for small-scale cooperative communities organised collectively as a way of promoting socialist values. Democratic Socialist Beatrice Webb and the Fabian society informed many of the collectivist policies of Atlees governments of 1945-51; nationalisation and top-down management.
Socialists believe that capitalism creates and reinforces harmful social class divisions that result in societal hierarchies. While socialists can agree on a broad critique of social class, they disagree on how best to rectify the problem they have diagnosed. Revolutionary socialists like marx and luxemburg argue for revolution, evolutionary webb, crosland and giddens all have different ideas for reconciling social class division. Marx and Engels argued that differences between social class could not be reconciled within a capitalist system and therefore revolution was inevitable. Webb shared this analysis but argued that the nature of state could be altered from serving capitalism to delivering a socialist state - would introduce universal nationalisation. Social democrats like Crosland were critical of the collectively minded utilitarianism of Webb’s ideas and the uniformity of nationalisation, which he felt compromised the freedom of the individual and would make the state a ‘dull functional nightmare’. Crosland argued that education reinforced class division and his most famous attempt at equality of opportunity was to create comprehensive schools.
To what extent do socialists agree over ‘equality of outcome’ [24 marks]
Equality of outcome is a concept, realisable through state policies and systems, in which all individuals have approximately the same material wealth and income. This is in opposition to the concept of meritocracy where the successes of individuals is determined by their abilities, regardless of inequalities of outcome. Revolutionary socialists, in particular, support equality of outcome, whilst social democrats and third-way ‘socialists’ are much more sceptical of this concept. Whilst it can be argued that socialists are committed to equality to a significant extent; this essay will argue that the differing tensions within socialism dispute whether equality of outcome is practical or indeed required for a fairer society.
- Revolutionary socialists support equality of outcome.
- M & E believed in common ownership over means of production in communist economy.
- Marx: `From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs”, - interpreted as his desire to create society where needs not determined by effort or other factors.
- The existing state, that is biassed toward the ruling bourgeois class thrives on inequality, and stands in favour of hostility and competition. This state should be overthrown in social revolutions to establish communist institutions as part of the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ (this was seen in the Russian revolution 1918-21).
- As a ‘class consciousness’ develops with the proletariat becomes aware of their exploitation, they will seek to strive for equality between workers.
- Although Rosa Luxembourg warned against undemocratic, dictatorial revolutions that diminished the proletariat, she also accepted the need for equality of outcome. These revolutions are inevitable as capitalism is inherently unsustainable as ‘surplus value’ eventually runs out of consumer markets and collapses.
- Revolutionary socialists aspire towards a society where the economy is centrally-planned with common ownership over means of production, determined solely by human need. This will eradicate socio-economic inequality as all individuals are entitled to the same and equal rewards of labour, dismissing differential outcomes based on abilities.
- This is further enabled by curtailing private ownership and resolving the inherent contradiction within capitalism between production and wealth accumulation. Thus, revolutionary socialists are committed to equality of outcome to a significant extent.
- Social democrats support equality of outcome to a much lesser extent than revolutionary socialists, favouring equality of opportunity instead.
- Some see equality of outcome to be desirable but unachievable, instead they opt for the “inevitability of gradualness” as Beatrice Webb called for. Webb dismissed the Marxist belief in class conflict, supporting the introduction of socialism via democratic institutions (evolutionary socialism).
- In this way, social democrats oppose the revolutionary overthrowing of the state and reject the Marxist view of capitalism. She argued a more evolutionary approach, calling for incremental changes to Capitalism, would lead inevitably to a more Socialist society. This is achieved through state intervention and managed Capitalism, argued by the revisionist Crossland as the best way to create a fairer society. He called for universal benefits, a mixed economy and state intervention particularly in creating opportunities for all. - Crosland looked to State education, public housing and income maintenance for the liberation of potential that would make the selective process of competitive capitalism into a genuinely fair race. Although equality of opportunity may lead to differing outcomes, social democrats saw equal opportunity as a means to denying massive income and wealth inequalities.
- Revolutionaries would argue that social democrats were at best naive to accept a market economy would ever create equality, instead they stood guilty of furthering inequalities by giving life to Capitalism.
Unlike revolutionary socialists, third-way ‘socialists’ dismiss the concept of equality of outcome altogether.
- Giddens rejected state intervention as encouraging a culture of dependency, and discouraging investment and entrepreneurship through the eradication of financial inducements. In this way, third-way socialists promote the priority of the market over the state, rejecting ‘top-down’ state intervention (exhibited under revolutionary and, to a lesser extent, social democracy socialism) in favour of further privatisation and deregulation as the opposite stifles economic growth.
- Third-way socialists hold a belief in a ‘competitive state’ that develops the skills and knowledge base of the workforce, improving job prospects of individuals and boosting economic growth - as opposed to common ownership. He called this “equality of inclusion” and argued his approach stood between market Capitalism and social democracy, suggesting his thinking was in line with the ultimate aims of socialism.
- Unlike revolutionary socialism that holds a belief that private ownership within laissez-faire capitalism perpetuates socio-economic inequality and the oppression of the proletariat, these socialists do not necessarily oppose the huge accumulation of private wealth, instead they promote targeted welfare toward socially-marginalised groups as part of the concept of social inclusion to promote equality of opportunity and genuine meritocracy (social justice).
- This can be seen in a raft of policies under Tony Blair’s government, influenced by the Third Way, investing in schools and hospitals but making choices the enabler to success as well as introducing tax credits for the poorest of families. Thus, third-way socialists are not committed to equality of outcome but Giddens would say they belong to the socialist tradition because he, like social democrats such as Webb, want to achieve equality for all. Social Democrats would argue against Giddens, suggesting his form of equality would be too weak to work against immense wealth disparities. Revolutionaries would question the ‘socialist’ credentials of Giddens and would claim his commitment to the free market in effect brought him closer to Capitalism.
Most socialists aspire to an equal society but do not agree on equality of outcomes. Revolutionary socialists are committed to equality of outcome that can only be realised through revolution. On the other hand, social democrats, although they believe in the ideal of equality of outcome, favour equality of opportunity through the expansion of the state to introduce socialist policies to ensure social justice, they see this as practical and creating harmony between the owners of capital and the workers. The Third Way rejects equality of outcome and neither sees it as an ideal or a positive measure of success.
Third way ideas and New Labour
Positive welfare Minimum national wage Tax credits provided to workers 10% tax rate for individuals with low incomes Grants for educational maintenance offered to disadvantaged students Implementation of a ‘New Deal’ to assist the unemployed in securing jobs
Social welfare system Inclusion of dedication to social justice in the New Labour Party constitution Focusing on addressing issues impacting the ‘underclass’, such as poverty, limited educational achievements, substance dependency, inadequate housing, and ineffective parenting, through the welfare-to-work initiative
Education - Giddens advocated for a ‘redistribution for all’ Establishment of academy schools in 2000: Blair suggested it would enhance student performance and disrupt the cycle of low expectations Promotion of competition among schools through league tables (a neoliberal concept) to enhance effectiveness, allowing parents the freedom to select their child’s school (encouraging civic involvement) Blair’s education-oriented policies boosted university enrollment. From 3.4% in 1950, it increased to 19.3% in 1970, and by 2017, it soared to 49% New Labour supported Giddens’ concept of lifelong learning to enable individuals to adjust to the dynamic twenty-first-century job market: ‘Education must be redefined to concentrate on skills that individuals can develop throughout their lives’ Encouragement of self-sufficiency (restructuring the welfare system)
Between 1997 and 2010, New Labour raised public expenditure to develop what Giddens referred to as ‘social capital,’ including schools, hospitals, and public structures, alongside initiatives like Crossrail (which introduced the Elizabeth line on the London Underground) and the campaign for the 2012 Olympic Games. Instead of being managed by the government, New Labour outsourced the construction projects to the private market through the use of private finance initiative (PFI) and public-private partnerships (PPPs).
Approaches towards crime Rejection of government control Promotion of community values Introduction of university tuition fees Conditional welfare support contingent on individuals actively seeking employment Justice system that combined authoritarianism and reform by being ‘tough on crime and its root causes’
Amendment of Clause IV in the Labour Party constitution, signaling the end of Labour’s dedication to public ownership Acknowledgment of the advantages of the free market by not reverting to a mixed economy following the Conservative governments’ privatization of national services from 1979 to 1997 Devolvement of powers to Scotland and Wales, alongside the election of mayors
Is there a difference between Social Democracy and Democratic socialism?
Both believed in democracy and rejected Leninism/Stalinism- (However many democratic socialists admired Stalin’s centralised and planned economy in the 1930s)
Both saw socialism as inevitable and would be achieved peacefully both believed in a welfare state.
Democratic Socialism is associated with the Webbs and figures such as HG Wells. Bernard Shaw and with the Fabian Society.
Webb’s democratic socialism argued for reform: overthrowing capitalism via the ballot box. In this sense it was a democratic revolutionary movement. The original Clause 4 of the Labour Party constitution is a democratic socialist aspiration. socialist state would see the free-market economy gradually nationalised as the workers obtained common ownership. Democratic Socialists tended to believe in bureaucracy and technical experts who would manage the economy through rational planning.
Postwar Labour governments were only partially swayed by her economic ideas, nationalising state utilities but allowing private companies to exist in a free market. Webb’s ‘Minority Report’ to the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws (1909) was a key influence on the development of the post-war welfare state.
Social Democracy is associated with the ideas of Anthony Crosland. Crosland’s book The Future of Socialism (1956) profoundly influenced the Labour Party in the post-war period. He dismissed Marxism as irrelevant and Webb’s socialist state as flawed. It did not call for the overthrow of capitalism and social democracy became the first branch of socialism to recognise a positive role for the free market. It did not see state ownership and centralised planning as the best way to achieve a fairer and more prosperous. State intervention, via Keynesian regulation of the economy, would ensure continual full employment and economic growth. Progressive taxation would help fund the welfare state and the social engineering- through education, would be required to create an egalitarian society.
