Liberalism Flashcards
Define Liberalism
The central theme of liberal ideology is a commitment to the individual and the desire to construct a society in which people can satisfy their interests and achieve fulfilment. They reject limitations imposed by class or tradition. Liberals believe that human beings are, first and foremost, individuals, endowed with reason. This implies that each individual should enjoy the maximum possible freedom consistent with a like freedom for all.
Define Individualism
Individualism is the belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any social group or collective body. This suggests that the individual is central to any political theory or social explanation – all statements about society should be made in terms of the individuals who compose them
Outline Individualism as a Core idea and principle
Classical liberals and the New Right subscribe to egotistical individualism, which places emphasis on self-interestedness and self-reliance. Modern liberals, in contrast, have advanced a developmental form of individualism that prioritises human flourishing over the quest for interest satisfaction.
The first is that each human being is a separate and unique entity, defined by inner qualities and attributes that are specific to themselves. To be an individual, in this sense, is to be different. This implication of individualism is captured in the idea of individuality. The second implication is that, as individuals, each of us shares the same status. Our identity is not defined by social categories such as gender, social class, ethnicity, religion, nationality and so on, but by the fact that we are individuals. To be an individual, in this sense, is to be the same. Liberals, in this light, are often portrayed as being ‘difference-blind’
Outline Tolerance in Individualism core idea
Another idea linked to the importance of the individual is tolerance: a willingness to respect values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees. This is one of the natural rights that liberals believe everyone should have, which should not be taken away against the will of the individual. Locke’s work appeared amidst a fear that Catholicism might be taking over England, and responds to the problem of religion and government by proposing religious toleration as the answer. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, who saw uniformity of religion as the key to a well-functioning civil society, Locke argued that more religious groups actually prevent civil unrest. In his opinion, civil unrest results from confrontations caused by any magistrate’s attempt to prevent different religions from being practised, rather than tolerating their proliferation. Rawls argues that an intolerant sect should be tolerated in a tolerant society unless the sect directly threatens the security of other members of the society. He links this principle to the stability of a tolerant society, in which members of an intolerant sect in a tolerant society will, over time, acquire the tolerance of the wider society.
Outline Freedom and Liberty as a Core idea and principle
Freedom is the most important of all liberal values.Early liberals objected to the way in which authoritarian governments claimed a right to take decisions on behalf of people and attempted to regulate their behaviour. However, they and their successors did recognise that freedom can never be absolute but must be exercised under the law, in order to protect people from interfering with each other’s rights. This is why the early liberal thinker John Locke (1632-1704) argued that ‘the end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom… where there is no law, there is no freedom.’
John Stuart Mill (1806-73) began as a follower of Bentham, but came to see the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain as too simplistic. He put forward what became known as the idea of negative freedom: individuals should only be subject to external restraint when their actions potentially affect others, not when their actions affect only themselves
Outline (The state: a ‘necessary evil’) as a Core idea
Liberal thinking about politics focuses primarily on the nature and role of the state and the organisation of government power. Such thinking is underpinned by the core assumption that the liberty of one person is always in danger of becoming a licence to abuse another. Each person can be said to be both a threat to, and under threat from, every other member of society. Our liberty therefore requires that the other members of society are restrained from encroaching on our freedom and, in turn, their liberty requires that they are safeguarded from us. This protection is provided by a sovereign state, capable of restraining all individuals and groups within society.
Liberals accept that the state is needed to avert disorder and to protect the vulnerable from exploitation. However, they mistrust power because they believe that human beings are essentially self-seeking, so may use any position of power to pursue their own interests, probably at the expense of others. Liberals oppose the concentration of political power, fearing that it gives people a greater incentive to benefit themselves and to use other people for their own ends.
They support the idea of constitutionalism — a government in which power is distributed and limited by a system of laws — in order to prevent a concentration of power. Typical features of a liberal constitution include the separation of powers. Liberals also favour a bill of rights, which provides a clear statement of citizens’ rights and defines the relationship between citizens and the state. In the United States, the first ten amendments to the Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights. An alternative is federalism — a system of government like that in the USA or Germany, where a number of states form a union under a central government, while each state retains responsibility for its own internal affairs.
Outline Rationalism as a Core idea
It holds that individuals should be free to exercise their judgement about their own interests, without needing to be guided by external authorities, such as the state or church leaders. People will not always make correct decisions, but it is better for them to take responsibility for themselves than to take instruction from above.
Rationalism in action - Liberals accept that competition between individuals, groups and nations regrettably will produce conflicts, but they favour the use of reasoned debate and discussion to resolve disputes. Late 19th-century liberals were in the forefront of moves to develop methods of industrial arbitration. This meant that a neutral third party would mediate between employers and trades unions, in an effort to avert costly legal action or strikes. Similarly, in international relations, liberals view war as a last resort, which should be avoided if at all possible.
Outline Equity/Social justice as a Core idea
Liberals place emphasis on equality of opportunity, the idea that each person should have the same chance to rise or fall in society. Liberals accept differing outcomes because people have different abilities and potential. They should be free to reach that potential.
Traditionally liberalism is based on a belief in foundational equality — people are born equal. This implies a belief in formal equality: individuals should enjoy the same legal and political rights in society, ensured by equality before the law and equal voting rights in free and fair elections.
Socialists criticised liberalism on the grounds that it does not tackle inequality because it is closely linked to the capitalist idea of competition. Instead, socialists aim to achieve equality of outcome by using the power of the state to redistribute wealth. However, classical liberals believe that individuals with different talents should be rewarded differently. The resulting social inequality is beneficial for society because it gives people an incentive to work hard and make the most of their abilities.
Outline Liberal democracy as a Core Idea
The idea that government should be based on the consent of the people is central to liberalism and long predates modern notions of democracy. Liberals argue that, without this foundation, the government lacks legitimacy.
Liberals support democracy on the grounds that it enables citizens to hold the government to account. It also extends popular participation and performs an educational function in society — the concept of developmental democracy, promoting the personal development of individuals. Democracy also gives a political voice to different groups and interests. In this way it promotes consensus and underpins political stability, giving equilibrium or balance to the political system.
On the other hand, liberals have feared excessive democracy on the grounds that it may lead to the ‘tyranny of the majority’, suppressing minority rights or individual freedom, or it may create a culture of dull conformism. Mill proposed to allocate more votes to the educated (plural voting) as a way of curbing the influence of the uneducated masses. Modern liberals would not support this idea because it gives undue weight to the views of an elite. They have been generally supportive of democracy, as long as it is limited by a constitutional framework, and individual and group rights are protected.
Define Liberal Democracy
Since the 19th century most liberals have supported the concept of liberal democracy. This involves:
free elections to give expression to the will of the people
limitations on the power of the state, which should act as a neutral arbiter between different interests in society
respect for civil liberties and toleration of different viewpoints
Outline The arguments of social justice/equity in terms of key thinkers
The early feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) argued that women were no less rational beings than men, so were entitled to the same rights to pursue a career and to own their own property when married — something the law prohibited at the time. Modern liberals support full civil rights for women and minority groups. For example, US President Barack Obama supported the right of transgender pupils to use bathrooms of their choice at school. There are different views within liberalism on equality. Most modern liberals favour some degree of state intervention to narrow social inequalities. They believe that true equality is not possible without social justice. However, they do not believe that total equality of outcome is either possible or desirable. John Rawls (1921-2002), author of A Theory of Justice (1971), is known for attempting to reconcile the concepts of liberal individualism with the prevention of excessive inequality.
Briefly define Classical Liberalism
This is the earliest liberal tradition, emerging during the transition from feudalism to capitalism, and reaching a high point in the 19th century. It was a reaction to religious conformity and the ascribed statuses of feudal society, and began in the UK, where the industrial revolution was most advanced. Some classical liberal ideas have increased in popularity in recent decades, namely neoliberalism, which is a return to classical liberal economics.
Outline the views of Liberalism
View of freedom: Classical liberals support the concept of negative freedom, meaning that individuals should, as far as possible, be free from government interference. Therefore, there should be an absence of constraints on the individual, meaning the state should be minimal. This will encourage individuals to take responsibility for their lives and be self-reliant. The alternative is that people may become reliant on the state, leading to a dependency culture. Egotistical individualism is also supported by classical liberals, where freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance.
View of the state: Classical (and modern) liberals support the principle of self-government- that groups of people should have the power to rule themselves- to help protect civil liberties. They also see the state as something which has been created by the people as a way of protecting rights and interests (mechanistic theory). Classical liberals strongly support a minimal state, whereby the state just lays down the conditions for an orderly existence but, as far as possible, does not get involved in people’s lives. The state’s role is to maintain order, enforce contracts between individuals, and protect its citizens from outside attack. Anything more than this runs the risk of infringing people’s liberties. Some liberals support the idea of social Darwinism, which is the ‘survival of the fittest’ principle applied to society. The idea is that people will rise and fall in society depending on their own merits and efforts, so it is not the responsibility of the state to help those at the bottom of society, for example through welfare. Classical liberals support a laissez-faire capitalist economy, which allows for personal freedom and provides benefits for all of society.
Define modern liberalism as a strand
This arose as a reaction to the effects of capitalism, which had created large inequalities of wealth and social circumstances. Modern liberals recognised that, in conditions of extreme poverty, people were prevented from rising in society, no matter how talented they were or how hard they worked.
Outline modern liberalism as a strand
View of freedom: TH Green (1836-82) believed that the unrestrained pursuit of profit had caused new forms of poverty and injustice, and that economic liberty had blighted the life chances of many. Green suggested that individuals possess social responsibilities, not just individual ones, and are linked to others. He and other modern liberals were critical of the classical liberal notion of negative liberty- giving freedom of choice would lead to unjust actions and exploitation (‘freedom to starve’). Modern liberals saw freedom as the ability of the individual to develop and realise their potential, and achieve fulfilment (positive freedom). This recognises that liberty may be threatened by social disadvantage and inequality, so it is not enough for individuals to be ‘left alone’ to ensure liberty.
View of the state: Modern liberals differ from classical liberals in that they support an enabling state. This is where the state helps to protect individual freedoms by exercising a wider range of social and economic responsibilities than a minimal state. This involves reducing inequality, to help provide equality of opportunity for all, even the least well-off. Modern liberalism therefore supports welfarism. This was seen through the actions of the Liberal government of the early 1900s, which introduced old-age pensions and National Insurance. The Beveridge Report of 1942 reported that much of the British population was held back by the ‘five giants’: want (poverty), ignorance (lack of education), disease (ill health), squalor (poor living conditions) and idleness (unemployment). Modern liberals suggest that the government had a responsibility to remove these, as they were barriers to freedom.
How far does modern liberalism depart from classical liberalism?
Although there are differing ideas over the conception of freedom and the role of the state, there remains some common ground between the different types of liberalism. Both types want to promote freedom, although the way the state should do this is different. Also, despite the support for welfarism, modern liberalism does not place society before the individual. The state cannot force people to be good, but should help provide conditions in which they can make responsible moral decisions- the individual therefore retains autonomy. It can be seen therefore that the underlying commitment to the needs of the individual and individual freedom remains- the central thrust of modern liberalism is to help individuals help themselves. In addition, both types are suspicious of an over-powerful state, supporting limited government as the best way to protect the liberties of individuals.
Outline tensions of strands in Human Nature
■ Human nature: all liberals believe that individuals are generally rational, intelligent, keen to pursue their own individual happiness and fulfillment, and respectful of other individuals’ wish to do the same. However, early classical liberals like Locke, and neo-liberals like Hayek, believe that individuals are naturally blessed with such qualities, while Mill and modern liberals like Rawls tend to think that such qualities are potential features of human nature, to be developed by enlightened liberal authorities. This is why modern liberals endorse Mill’s concept of individuality — one that refers to what individuals could become, once ‘enabled’ to fulfil their potential. So for example a libertarian might well feel that all humans can be trusted to own guns, use drugs or educate their children. While a modern liberal would suggests that such individual freedoms need to be regulated at least.
Outline tensions across strands in society
Society: classical liberals believe that human society predates the state, while all liberals see society as a collection of diverse and potentially autonomous individuals, seeking self-determination, self-realisation and self-fulfilment. Modern liberals like Rawls, however, believe that industrialised and urban societies are those where individuals are less autonomous and therefore require state support to be free (‘positive liberty’). They would support a Welfare State and social services. Neo-liberals often see society as one where individuals have been damaged or unnecessarily restricted by ‘positive liberty’ and that the ‘dependency culture’ must now be corrected by a radical reduction of the state. Some neo-liberals might see the ideal situation as one where ‘there is no such thing’ as society, just a collection of atomised individuals pursuing self-interest.
Outline tensions within liberalism in terms of the state
The state: all liberals believe that the state should function according to prearranged rules and procedures, with power fragmented and authority subject to the consent of the governed. However, liberals vary on the extent of state activity. Classical liberals like Mill, in accordance with ‘negative’ liberty, believe state intervention should be minimal and individuals left unchecked (unless they hamper the freedom of others). Modern liberals like Friedan, in accordance with the concept of ‘positive liberty’, believe state intervention should be much more extensive so as to ‘enable’ individuals to reach their potential. Liberals have also varied over how democratic the state should be. Modern liberals are satisfied that representative democracy enhances constitutional government, whereas early classical liberals saw democracy as a threat to property rights.
Outline tensions within liberalism in terms of the economy
■ The economy: following Locke’s assertion that property is a ‘natural right’, all liberals believe that the economy should be based on private property and private enterprise. However, while classical liberals and neo-liberals support Adam Smith’s thesis (that the state should adopt a laissez-faire attitude to the economy), modern liberals have more sympathy for the view of John Maynard Keynes (that capitalism requires regular state management to ensure full employment). Modern liberalism’s belief in ‘managed’ capitalism also explains its support for supranational organisations like the European Union, which many neo-liberals see as an obstacle to global free trade.
Outline John Locke (1632-1704) as a key thinker
(CLASSICAL LIBERALISM )Locke was a British political philosopher. In Two Treatises of Government (1690) he argued that the people and their rulers should be subject to restrictions in law. Otherwise, there is no guarantee that the rulers would not abuse the ruled. He supported the concepts of ‘natural’ rights, that everyone is entitled to by virtue of being human, and natural laws, and suggested that governments derive legitimacy from the people, so should respect the people’s natural rights. The social contract is the expression of this idea; that people accept the rule of the government as they know this is the best protection of their rights and interests. The government’s role is to govern in accordance with the people’s wishes, by giving people freedoms as far as possible and promoting toleration. This upholds the key right of freedom. If the government does not do this, the people have the right to disobey or overthrow it. This is the idea of authority based on consent. The government therefore has fiduciary power, meaning there is a measure of trust between the government and the people.
Outline Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) as a Key thinker
(CLASSICAL LIBERALISM) Woolstonecraft was an early feminist writer. In A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) she argued that women were just as rational as men, so were entitled to the same rights. At the time of her writing, women did not enjoy legal independence from men, as their husbands controlled every aspect of their lives. Woolstonecraft argued that women needed formal equality in order to be free and not dependent on men. They should have the same opportunities as men to pursue careers, for example. She wanted women to have a choice, although she did suggest that women were more likely to choose the domestic role, perhaps being influenced by the beliefs of the time she was writing in that women were biologically predisposed to the mothering, nurturing role. Wollstonecraft was a defender of the French Revolution, against the criticisms of Burke and others, in the ‘revolution controversy’ debate, criticising the institution of aristocracy and arguing for republicanism (removal of the monarchy) as the best way of ensuring the rights of individuals were protected.
Outline John Stuart Mill (1906-73) as a key thinker
(CLASSICAL LIBERALISM) Mill argued in On Liberty (1859) that the ‘harm principle’ should guide the actions of government. He argued that ‘self-regarding’ rules (freedoms people should have to do things to themselves) should never be limited. This is because self-regarding actions do not harm other people. ‘Other regarding’ rules (the freedom to do things to others) are actions which can be restricted, but only if they cause harm to others or limit their freedom. Later in life he supported limited state intervention to prevent the poorest from experiencing injustice, for example taxation (which should be the same rate for all- a ‘flat tax’). Therefore, he is seen as a ‘bridge’ between classical and modern liberal thought. He also strongly supported toleration and the right to hold minority views- he suggested that just because a belief was widely supported, that did not make it ‘right’. Some of his views were unconventional for the time, for instance his belief in the complete equality of men and women. He also distinguished between ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ pleasures, higher pleasures being ones which enhance a person’s intellectual development. These were to be preferred over lower pleasures, which Mill criticised as ‘hedonism’- the pursuit of basic sensual self-indulgence.
Outline John Rawls (1806-73) as a key thinker
(MODERN LIBERALISM) Rawls was an American academic. In A Theory of Justice (1971) he argued that the individual rights, freedoms and beliefs of each person must be respected. Therefore, approaches such as utilitarianism (the greatest happiness for the greatest number) are flawed. Excessive inequality should therefore be avoided, as it harms the poorest in society. A just society is one in which each person has an acceptable minimum standard of living. This is based on the ‘veil of ignorance’ scenario, whereby individuals would devise a society in which certain living standards and rights existed for all. They would do this without knowing their own position in that society, so they would naturally want certain basic living conditions in case they found themselves at the bottom. Inequality can only be allowed therefore if it does not make people at the bottom worse and worse off. Rawls rejected the extremes of communism and unregulated capitalism. Later, he suggested that an ‘overlapping consensus’ on the principles of a just society would be sufficient for society to function.
Outline Betty Friedan (1921-2006) as a key thinker
(MODERN LIBERALISM) Friedan was an American feminist, influential in the feminist and Civil Rights movements in the USA. In The Feminine Mystique (1963) she argued that women were encouraged to take domestic roles in society due to conditioning, rather than innate biological tendencies. Confinement to this domestic role led to unhappiness and unfulfillment for large numbers of women. She wished to reform society so that women were able to easily choose either a career or a domestic role, depending on what they wanted. This would result in true equal rights. Any laws which prevented this should be repealed. Friedan argued for a level playing field for women with men, similar to the views of Mary Wollstonecraft. Women should be seen as just as capable as men of having successful careers in a number of different fields.
Outline key thinkers view on Human nature
John Locke (Classic Liberal)- Human beings are rational, guided by the pursuit of self-interest, but mindful of other concerns. Humans rationality enables them not to have destructive tendencies
Mary Wollstonecraft (Classic Liberal) - Rationalism defines both genders; intellectually men and women are not different and are equal. Women may appear inferior due to lack of education and opportunity. An optimistic view of human nature parallel to that of the Enlightenment but thought it should apply to women as well.
John Stuart Mill (Classic Liberal)- Although fundamentally rational, human nature is not fixed and always progressing to higher levels. Developed the harm principle which distinguishes between self-rewarding and other-regarding actions. We should be free to pursue those actions that in no way constrain the liberty of others. We should, therefore, be able to engage in self-regarding action
John Rawls (Modern Liberal) - Mankind is selfish yet empathetic, valuing both individual liberty and the plight of those around them. Foundational equality meant that individuals required both equality under the law and social and economic equality
Betty Friedan (Modern Liberal) - Human nature has evolved in a way that discourages self-advancement among women. Believes all individuals should be free to seek control of their lives. Gender is a hindrance to all individuals who were female in allowing them to realise their full potential. Believed in the equality of all and rejected both male and female chauvinism (the idea that women had any superiority)
Outline key thinkers view on society
John Locke (Classic Liberal) - Society predates the state; there were ‘natural’ societies with natural laws and rights. Rejects the conservative view that no society could arise without formal authority.
Mary Wollstonecraft (Classic Liberal)- Looked down on society, believing it had oppressed women and had stifled ‘female individualism’. Thought society had ‘infantilised’ women and made them seem weak and society is flawed because it undermines women
John Stuart Mill (Classic Liberal)- The ideal society is one where individuality coexisted with tolerance and self-improvement. Mill warns us against the mediocrity of public opinion and tendency to tell everyone to act the same manner. The despotism of custom seeks to crush self-expression and is therefore contrary to the right and proper goal of a liberal society. We need to facilitate
John Rawls (Modern Liberal)- The society most individuals would choose would be the one where the condition of the poorest improved. Rawls constructed the original position (the current society which requires individuals to create a better society) and the veil of ignorance (individuals are not aware of any other factors) and are all rational, free and morally equal beings.
Betty Friedan (Modern Liberal)- Society remained chauvinistic against women, with women being complicit in their own repression. The illiberal views within society (as opposed to human nature) condemned women to underachievement. Women were sold a lifestyle that centred around marriage, the home, the family. This conditioning meant many women believed their life was controlled by human nature and not their own rationality.
Outline Key thinkers views on The State
John Locke (Classic Liberal)- Requires a limited government to protect our freedom as ‘where laws do not exist a man has no freedom’. Achieved through a social contract. (ie. constitution). As rational entities, we realise that our liberties are best protected by a state, who can properly uphold our basic liberties.
Mary Wollstonecraft (Classic Liberal) - The monarchical state should be replaced by a republic which enshrines women’s rights. Wanted to put power in elected officials, with women having representatives to help further their course By denying women the right to vote, the state was violating the idea of government by consent
John Stuart Mill (Classic Liberal)- The state should proceed cautiously towards representative democracy, mindful of minority rights. The liberal state should not tolerate “other-regarding” human actions, which could include violent or riotous behaviour. Mill was concerned that government by consent would be compromised if the wishes of some individuals were
John Rawls (Modern Liberal) - The state should enable less fortunate individuals to advance via public spending and public services (welfare state). An enlarged state has more laws, more state spending and more taxation. Rawls argued that an enlarged state liberates its individuals from social and economic problems, enabling them to fulfil their potential - an enabling state.
Betty Friedan (Modern Liberal) - The state should legislate to prevent discrimination against female individuals. Cited the ‘harm principle’ in favour of an enabling state, stating that laws criminalising discrimination prevented females from having their liberties harmed by others. Rejected the idea the state was patriarchal and forever controlled by a dominant gender, offering a more optimistic view.
Outline Key thinkers views on the Economy
John Locke (Classic Liberal)- He placed importance on property rights as he felt that the natural right of property comes from the right of one’s labour. State policy should respect the “natural right” to private property and arbitrate effectively between individuals competing for trade and resources.
Mary Wollstonecraft (Classic Liberal) - Once women were liberated, they will be able to energise the free market economy wanted women to be able to have economic freedom, believing that this was harming society by having women as “domestic slaves”. Women should be allowed the same rights regarding private property as men.
John Stuart Mill (Classic Liberal)- Laissez-faire capitalism is vital to progress, individual enterprise and initiative. Mill favoured inheritance taxation, trade protectionism, and regulation of employees’ hours of work. Although Mill favoured mandatory education, he did not advocate mandatory schooling. Instead, he advocated a voucher system for schools and “experiments in living” in order that freedom is experienced to the very full. A liberal society is one that tolerates the full diversity of lifestyles. overwhelmed by the majority of individuals. Mill feared a democratic state had the potential to create ‘tyranny of the majority a state system of exams to ensure that people had reached a minimum level of learning
John Rawls (Modern Liberal) - Free market capitalism should be tempered by the state’s obligation to advance its poorest citizens. An enabling state, a redistribution of wealth is needed to improve the lives of the poor. Higher income - leads to higher % of income paid in tax. This means that some individuals who have higher incomes would sacrifice more of their earnings to the state
Betty Friedan (Modern Liberal) - Free-market legislation can help female emancipation from the patriarchal society if used with legislation to prevent sexual discrimination. Believed that the government should interfere with the economy via Keynesian Economy.
Outline the Different views of freedom
Both classical and modern liberals value freedom, but they disagree over its nature. Classical liberals believe in negative freedom, a principle often linked to the idea of freedom of choice or privacy. Freedom can be expanded most clearly by restraining state power. Classical liberals also believe in egoistical individualism: that society is composed of rational individuals who can make decisions in their own interest.
The logic of negative freedom leads to the rolling back of the state, to encourage individuals to take more responsibility for themselves. Self-reliance is a key virtue for classical liberals.
Dependence on the state is damaging because it undermines the self-respect of the individual and saps the spirit of enterprise on which economic growth depends.
Current debates over the growth of a ‘dependency culture’ are linked to the ideas of classical liberalism. The idea of the dependency culture has come from the expansion of the UK welfare state since 1945, which has been associated with a loss of personal responsibility, the breakdown of the traditional family and the persistence of unemployment across generations. Neoliberals argue that social welfare should be targeted at those who really need it, and that others should be encouraged to lift themselves out of poverty through their own efforts.
Modern liberals believe that negative freedom is necessary but not sufficient for a good society. It can amount to little more than ‘freedom to starve’ for those facing disadvantages over which they have no control — for example, working in an occupation prone to periods of unemployment, or suffering an industrial accident. These people need assistance to live truly free and fulfilling lives.
This is why modern liberals support the idea of positive freedom. This defines freedom as self-mastery or self-realisation. Freedom can be expanded by qualified state intervention in the economy and society, to widen individual opportunity and liberate citizens from social evils such as poverty. Modern liberals favour developmental individualism — enabling individuals to enjoy personal growth and empowerment.
Has modern liberalism abandoned the principles of classical liberalism?
Has modern liberalism abandoned the principles of classical liberalism?
Yes
■Classical liberalism defined liberty as individuals being left alone (negative freedom). Modern liberals think individuals are not free unless they are actively ‘enabled’ via interference from others (positive freedom).
■Classical liberalism championed a minimal state. Modern liberals champion an enlarged, enabling state. Classical liberalism was inclined to see taxation as ‘theft’ and sought to restrict it. Modern liberals often see increased taxation as the key method for implementing positive freedom.
■ Classical liberalism favoured laissez-faire capitalism from which the state is detached. Modern liberals favour Keynesian capitalism, where the state seeks to ‘manage’ market forces.
■ Classical liberalism had an unenthusiastic view of democracy, prioritising instead the interests of property owners. Modern liberalism has championed representative democracy.
No
■Both classical and modern liberalism have an optimistic view of human potential. Both classical and modern liberalism believe in rationalism and insist upon tolerance of minorities. Both classical and modern liberalism see individualism as the goal of politics and society — they differ merely about how to achieve it.
■Both classical and modern liberalism believe in capitalism and oppose state ownership of the economy.
■ Both classical and modern liberalism believe in a constitutional (‘limited’) state and ‘government by consent’.
Is modern liberalism a contradiction or a continuation of classical liberalism?
There is a clear difference between the classical liberal fear of the state and modern liberals’ willingness to use its power to promote social justice. In the 19th century, liberals were sceptical of the benefits of state intervention. Gladstone described it as ‘construction’, a term that to him had negative connotations. He believed that it would take responsibility out of the hands of the individual.
Nevertheless, both classical and modern liberals are concerned in their different ways by expanding the freedom of the individual. Modern liberals see the state as helping individuals to help themselves and they regard state provision of welfare and education as a means to ensure equality of opportunity.
Both types of liberal are anxious to resist the idea of an over-powerful government. They share a commitment to holding the government to account, to decentralising power and to protecting the rights of the citizen. Where they differ is in the extent to which they are prepared to use the state to achieve liberal objectives.
