Feminism Flashcards
Outline Feminism
Feminism has a core belief: that women are and have been, disadvantaged and oppressed because of their sex. Feminists have highlighted what they see as a political relationship between the sexes, the supremacy of men and the subjection of women in most, if not all, societies. Nevertheless, feminism has also been characterized by a diversity of views and political positions.
Outline first wave feminism
Focused on the legal and political rights of women. By the mid nineteenth century the women’s movement had acquired a central focus: the campaign for female suffrage most famously in the UK through the suffragette movement, which culminated in equal suffrage with men in 1928. Female suffrage was its principal goal because it was believed that if women could vote all other forms of sexual discrimination or prejudice would quickly disappear.
Outline Second-wave feminism
A radically new development occurred in the 1960s and 1970s, the so-called ‘second wave’ of feminism, inspired by such writers as Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex (1953), Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (1963), Kate Millet, Sexual Politics (1970) and, most famously, Germaine Greer, The Female Eunuch (1970). It shifted the entire debate from what might be generally considered political to the psychological, cultural and anthropological fields.
- Second-wave feminism recognized that political and legal rights alone did not solve the ‘women’s question’.
- Books like Kate Millett’s Sexual Politics and Germaine Greer’s The Female Eunuch emphasized the personal, psychological, and sexual aspects of female oppression.
- Both liberal and radical feminism advocated for equal rights legislation and social change to improve women’s situation.
- In Britain, legislation like Abortion Law Reform, Divorce Law Reform, Equal Pay Act, Sex Discrimination Act, Employment Protection Act, and Domestic Violence Act have been introduced to promote gender equality.
- Some second-wave feminists advocated for greater inclusion of women based on female moral superiority.
- The goal of’second-wave’ feminism was not political emancipation but ‘women’s liberation’, reflected in the Women’s Liberation Movement.
- Feminism has established gender perspectives as important themes in academic disciplines and raised awareness about gender issues in public life. By the 1990s, feminist organizations existed in all western countries and most parts of the developing world.
Outline Third-wave feminism
In the 1990s, was concerned with the idea that feminism had solely focused on white middle-class women, failing to recognise the concerns of women of other cultures. By the 1990s some feminists argued that second-wave feminism was becoming rather dated. Major civil liberties and legal advances for women had occurred. Technological developments, such as the contraceptive pill and household labour-saving devices, had liberated women from the burdens of unplanned childbearing and the grind of housework that had held back earlier generations.
Gender discrimination in Britain remains a significant issue, with female pay remaining around 75% of male wages. Women are more likely to be in low-paid, part-time, low-status, insecure, low-skilled, and temporary work than men. Few women are at the top of major professions, and the proportion of leading businesses with women on their boards fell from 69% in 1999 to 57% in 2001. Contemporary feminism, like the work of Natasha Walter, suggests that women can use existing power structures in work and other organizations to advance their interests, creating a new form of feminism that is more in tune with the individualistic and apolitical world in Western societies.
Outline Fourth-wave feminism-New Feminism
A new wave of feminists is addressing inequality through media images, online misogyny, and social media expansion. New feminism focuses on privileged women, but does little for the majority of women worldwide. Women in developing countries face worse forms of gender inequality and receive little help in their struggle. Feminism is not limited to the radical or political left, and women in developing countries see a crucial role in social and economic progress, population control, and environmental protection. Feminist thinking has gone through deradicalization and fragmentation, adding postmodern, psychoanalytical, black, and lesbian feminism to the core traditions.
Outline the core ideas of sex and gender and how it relates to human nature, the state, society and the economy
Certain feminists emphasise the cultural dimension because they see that as the most appropriate means by which to enable women to benefit from empowerment. For them, the main source of female oppression is via the social construct of femininity because “women are not born, they are made” (Simone de Beauvoir). A fundamental change in our conception of gender is essential in order that women escape the confines of patriarchy and journey towards a more fulfilling life.
Essentialists however emphasise biological differences as they see it as more appropriate to the goals of the women’s movement. They believe that women should rejoice in that which makes them biologically different to men (such as giving birth and the ability to breastfeed). These biological abilities are superior to anything a man could ever do. Either way, there is an underlying assumption that women are biologically superior. On this basis, the psychologist Carol Gilligan claims that women adopt a fundamentally different and superior moral psychology to their male counterparts. Under patriarchy, women are under pressure to achieve an unrealistic goal that means suppression of the true self.
Another leading exponent of the essentialist argument is Mary Daly. She claims that women should be proud of the biological differences between women and men (namely motherhood). Rather than adopting an androgynous ideal advocated by socialist and equality feminists, women should seek a woman-only culture untainted by a patriarchal construction of femininity; thereby enabling women to express their “lusty selves”. Post-modern feminists also seek to facilitate women’s voyage of self-discovery, thereby allowing a level of separation from male-imposed identities (i.e. how the marital status of a woman is always a part of their formal identification). Rather than pursue gender equality, women must adopt a degree of separateness to experience true liberation from male oppression
Define sex
“Sex” reflects biological differences between men and women whereas distinctions.
Define gender
Gender refers to cultural differences between the sexes, leading to feelings of superiority of men and inferiority of women and the assignment of inferior roles in society to women. Feminists view gender differences as the creation of patriarchal society and see them as not natural. Sex and gender stereotypes, such as typical female secretaries or male chief executives, are the result of such distinctions.
Outline the terms masculine and feminine
The terms masculine and feminine are used to describe an ‘ideal’ gender type for men and women to aspire to, with women aspired to be calm, passive, compassionate, thoughtful, poised, and elegant. Physical strength is generally less valuable in developed societies, where tools and machinery are more efficient than human strength.
Feminists differ on their views of sex and gender
LIBERALS have traditionally regarded differences between women and men as being of entirely private or personal significance. In public and political life, all people are considered as individuals, gender being as irrelevant as ethnicity or social class. In this sense, individualism is ‘gender-blind’.
RADICAL FEMINISTS argue that sex is highly significant and may imply different roles for women and men. Women possess qualities as a consequence of their biology which make them different but not unequal- possibly even superior.
CONSERVATIVES have traditionally emphasised the social and political significance of gender divisions, arguing that they imply that the sexual division of labour between women and men is natural and inevitable. Gender is thus one of the factors that give society its organic and hierarchical character.
SOCIALISTS, like liberals, have rarely treated gender as a politically significant category. When gender divisions are significant it is usually because they reflect and are sustained by deeper economic and class inequalities.
Define Patriarchy
Patriarchy is the term used to describe the society which is characterised by current and historic unequal power relations between women and men whereby women are systematically disadvantaged and oppressed. This takes place across almost every sphere of life but is particularly noticeable in women’s under-representation in key state institutions, in decision-making positions and in employment and industry. Male violence against women is also a key feature of patriarchy. Women in minority groups face multiple oppressions in this society, as race, class and sexuality intersect with sexism
Outline patriarchy as a core idea and principle of feminism
All feminists are highly critical of how the various instruments of patriarchy impact adversely upon women. For example, feminists claim that marriage works in favour of the husband because he gains an unpaid servant to take care of both his conjugal needs and the upkeep of the home. The exploitation of women within a marriage reflects deeper structural inequalities within a male-dominated society.
As an ideology, feminism seeks to highlight the disastrous impact of patriarchy upon women’s lives. They claim that the exploitation and subjugation of women occurs both within the private sphere and the public realm. The socialist feminist Simone de Beauvoir argued that only man has the freedom to choose and set himself up as essential and subject. In contrast, women are both inessential and object. To address the problem, she advocated a family structure centred upon a balanced couple that displayed “equality in difference, and difference in equality.”
Patriarchal institutions and practices have been challenged through legislative measures and changing social attitudes. Workplaces are legally obliged to publish pay gaps and prevent sexual discrimination, with employers held liable if found guilty. Employment tribunals are often used to resolve grievances. However, patriarchy persists, with sexist attitudes persisting in various settings, including the classroom and online. Sexism is a significant barrier to life chances, and liberal and radical feminists advocate for constructive engagement with the political process to address misogyny. They believe that a more militant approach is needed to eradicate a system based on systematic and institutionalized gender oppression.
Define what is meant by the ‘personal is political’
The second-wave feminist Carol Hanish is credited with the slogan “the personal is the political.” This remains one of the most celebrated phrases from an ideology that boldly recasts the focus of traditional ideologies towards the private sphere. This well-known phrase encapsulates the various attempts made by feminists of all persuasions to raise awareness of how the private realm serves a very deliberate political aim
Outline the personal is political as a core ideas and principles
Feminism is at heart an ideology that seeks to politicise the private realm. In doing so, it attempts to highlight the subordinate status of women and thereby challenge the traditional dominance of the male within the home and the family. Feminists have also sought to emphasis the political importance of lifestyle choices made by women (notably reproductive rights within the United States).
The redefinition of that which we should consider political is one of the lasting legacies of the feminist movement. Hanish should therefore be viewed as part of a wider movement for social change and one that has undoubtedly broadened our consideration of that which falls under the realm of political ideas. It may also have served to empower women from the confines of cultural and social expectations of femininity (particularly in the context of motherhood and the domestic realm).
Adopting the phrase ‘the personal is the political’ is part of the broader aim amongst feminists to break down the traditional dichotomy between the public sphere and the private sphere. This is based upon an understanding that gender expectations can both reflect and reinforce the power imbalance between men and women. As such, that which is traditionally considered to be in the private realm should warrant the same degree of attention as other more conventional considerations. It is only by doing so that females can escape the stifling confines of that behaviour which is expected of them.
Define Equality feminism
feminism that seeks equality for men and women in society and believes that the biological differences between men and women are inconsequential.
Define difference feminism
feminism that argues that men and women are fundamentally different from one another.
Define Essentialism
for difference feminism this is the belief that biological factors are significant in the different behaviour of men and women
Define cultural feminism
A form of difference feminism that seeks to challenge the dominance of male culture in society by promoting ‘women’s values’
Outline equality feminism and difference feminism as a core idea and prinicple
In simple terms, equality feminism is firmly associated with the ‘politics of sameness.’ As the name implies, their goal is an androgynous ideal in which men and women are equal partners. In terms of a relationship, this could manifest itself in the symmetrical division of domestic labour.
Difference feminists, on the other hand, claim that men and women are fundamentally different. Men and women therefore bring different values and qualities to a relationship. This is a particularly significant point with regard to raising children and is commonly referred to as the ‘politics of difference.’ Difference feminism is therefore associated with the view that women are superior to men, whereas equality feminists adopt the objective of gender equality.
Equality feminists derive from the left of the political spectrum. It should also be noted that equality feminism is closely associated with the strand of thought known as socialist feminism.
In contrast, difference feminists are harder to properly locate within the conventional left-right setting. Regardless of such concerns, the distinction between the two goes to the very heart of what the women’s movement is all about – ‘should feminists adopt the politics of difference, or the politics of sameness?’ It is a question that continues to provoke heated debate within feminist circle
Outline what is meant by the term intersectionality
The concept of intersectionality arose in the late 1980s and is associated with third-wave feminism. Intersectionality criticised previous forms of feminism for ignoring black and working-class women’s experiences of patriarchy.The concept of intersectionality arose in the late 1980s and is associated with third-wave feminism.
Intersectionality criticised previous forms of feminism for ignoring black and working-class women’s experiences of patriarchy. The term was coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw, when showing how black women were oſten marginalised by both feminist and anti-racist movements because their concerns did not fit comfortably within either group. She argued in 2015 that intersectionality ‘has given many advocates a way to frame their circumstances and to fight for their visibility and inclusion’.
Outline intersectionality as a core idea and principle in feminism
The concept of intersectionality serves to highlight how various biological, social, religious and cultural categorisations interact with one another. This enables us to recognise the multidimensional character of injustice against women (particularly black women and working-class women). Intersectionality therefore seeks to identify a system of oppression that takes us beyond the traditional feminist conception of male oppression.
Rather than identifying patriarchy, with its attachment to singular means of social differentiation; intersectionality takes a more nuanced perspective. The obvious consequence is that black and working-class women’s experiences of patriarchy are fundamentally different from that experienced by white, middle-class women.
Intersectionality is an important aspect in terms of comprehending contemporary feminism – principally in the context of the fourth-wave of feminism. It is a particularly appealing concept to those who do not wish to identify themselves as a feminist due to the ideological baggage associated with the term. It also reminds us that progress towards female emancipation has thus far been skewed towards white, middle-class women.
The leading proponent of intersectionality is bell hooks (the pen name of Gloria Watkins). She employs the term intersectionality to advance our traditional (and somewhat limited) understanding of social oppression.
In her book ‘Ain’t I a Woman?’ bell hooks outlined the historical impact of sexism and racism on black women and demonstrates how it serves to devalue black womanhood. She also analyses the role played by the media and within education in the construction of a white-supremacist-capitalist-patriarchy. Ultimately, bell hooks concludes that systems of oppression perpetuate themselves over time and that intersectionality is characterised by the mutual relationship between race, capitalism and gender.
Outline Liberal feminism Strand
Liberal feminism is built upon two inter-related elements. Firstly, women are rational individuals entitled to inalienable and universal human rights. In the eloquent words of the pioneering first-wave feminist Mary Wollstonecraft; “the mind has no gender.” In the context of gender equality, liberal feminists advocate a society in which women hold political equality with men. The second aspect of liberal feminism is the aim to facilitate a diversity of lifestyles amongst women.
Diversity is the watchword of liberal feminists and the guiding principle should be one shaped by individual choice (as in the case of pro-choice pressure groups). A society governed by liberal feminism enables women (and men) to maximise their personal freedom to the very full.
Liberal feminists contend that the governance of society would be improved significantly by a more inclusive attitude to women. These benefits would also apply to the economic realm. Access to education and career opportunities must also be broadened to benefit women – particularly those marginalised within society. Liberal feminists also wish to dismantle the patriarchal character of social institutions (notably within the political realm) that force women to suppress their natural femininity.
Liberal feminism is the most significant of the main strands of feminism, and was the dominant strand during both the first-wave and the third-wave of the women’s movement. At heart, liberal feminism entails a constructive engagement with the political and legislative process (such as the One Billion Rising worldwide movement against violence against women).
Ultimately, the problem of sexism is resolvable via a set of legislative and employment measures to prevent discrimination in the workplace. The focus of liberal feminism thereby centres upon protecting the rights of females with regard to employment and reproduction. As the strand of feminism closest to the centre of the political spectrum, liberal feminism entails a rejection of the overt emphasis upon equality from those on the left of the women’s movement, and the extremist stance adopted by radicals at the margins of political debate.
Outline Socialist feminism as a Strand of feminism
Socialist feminism is further to the left of the political spectrum and was the prevalent approach within the second-wave of the women’s movement.
Theorists such as Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Charles Fourier argue that the root cause of female oppression is the economic system. Capitalism is designed to serve the interests of men whilst exploiting women. In short, both capitalism and patriarchy are linked. Women’s work is underpaid, undervalued and often unpaid. Women are also underrepresented within the most powerful jobs, more likely to be part of the precariat, more likely to be underemployed and more likely to be in part-time work. Capitalism also relegates women to the status of the reserve army of labour with a disproportionately high number of housewives and other females.
Socialist feminists also claim that the nuclear family reflects and reinforces patriarchy. Firstly, it maintains the dominant position of the bourgeoisie by enabling fathers to pass on their wealth to their sons. Secondly, the family also provides a safety-valve to relieve some of the pressure the male proletariat may experience within the workplace. In doing so, a form of false consciousness is generated that prevents the proletariat from overthrowing their capitalist oppressors. Thirdly, the family is a unit of consumption which helps the bourgeoisie maintain a profit. As Karl Marx once said; “the bourgeoisie has torn away from the family in sentimental veil, and has reduced the family relation to a mere money relation.”
Finally, mothers are expected to undertake the main responsibility for nurturing children and taking care of male workers. The owners of capital therefore gain a healthy supply of workers without having to pay for costly health-care schemes. As such, the emancipation of women demands nothing less than the abolition of the traditional nuclear family with the male as breadwinner and head of the household.
Perhaps the key distinction between the two main strands of feminist thought is that liberal feminists are individualist whereas socialist feminists are collectivist. Socialist feminists claim that the feminist movement can only progress via solidarity amongst women. A sense of sisterhood is necessary in order that women may liberate themselves from patriarchal oppression. In a society based upon the tenants of socialist feminism, there would be genuine equality between the genders. In doing so, the self-esteem and expectations of females would rise to that of their male counterparts. In contrast, liberal feminism is focused primarily upon personal choice.
Outline Radical Feminists as type of feminism
As the term implies, radical feminism is firmly outside the mainstream of feminist thought. As they see it, the problem within a patriarchal society is that of gender inequality. Radical feminists firmly believe that we must transform the entire basis of society towards a celebration of feminine values and virtues. Only by opposing centuries of patriarchal oppression can society be reordered along a matriarchal basis.
Under a more gynocentric approach, women could enjoy fulfilling and meaningful relationships without the need for men. Unlike other strands of feminist thought, the role of males is entirely marginal within radical feminism. Whereas liberal feminists believe that men can assist progress towards feminist goals, and socialist feminists have faith in the predestined role for the male proletariat, radical feminists have no specific role for men whatsoever. This is sometimes referred to as the redundant male theory.
As with radicals of any number of ideological perspectives, they remain very much on the margins of political debate with little opportunity to frame the contours of debate. Their principal contribution to feminism is in terms of raising consciousness about the pernicious character of female oppression and in their advocacy of women-only communes. Radical feminists have also tried to change the way we conceive of issues largely within the private sphere. For instance, Susan Brownmiller (1975) argues that patriarchy creates an ideology of rape designed as a conscious process of intimidation. Women are therefore kept locked in a state of fear, and even men who do not rape women benefit from the fear and anxiety that rape causes.
One of the most radical voices within the feminist tradition is that of Andrea Dworkin. Like other radical figures within the feminist movement (such as Marilyn French and Sheila Cronon), Andrea Dworkin rejects the mainstream assumption that men are somehow redeemable. Dworkin has no faith in the ability of men to adopt an entirely different set of values and behavioural traits. This had primarily centred upon her critique of pornography and how it enables men to own and possess women’s bodies. She also claims that those institutions which formalise the relationship between men and women (such as marriage and the nuclear family) are deeply patriarchal. The man is both the head of the household and – as the breadwinner – exerts direct economic power over his wife. Dworkin therefore concludes that “marriage is an institution developed from rape as a practise” and that “intercourse as an act expresses the power men have over women.” As a solution, she advocates a form of separateness to free women from the shackles of patriarchy. Yet perhaps her most notorious quote is that “all men are potential rapists” – which has to some extent left her open to the charge of misandry.
Outline Post modern feminism as a type of feminism
Post-modern feminism is distinct to the three main strands of feminist thought. Post-modern feminists begin with the assumption that the modernist conception of feminism places overt emphasis upon gender differences between women and men whilst ignoring the differences within each gender.
Post-modern feminists also claim that gender is largely developed from a discourse that we learn to adopt over time. Gender is therefore neither natural nor innate. Instead, gender is constituted by the way we talk, create images and present ourselves to others.
Another key element of post-modern feminism is the claim that patriarchy operates differently due to the social characteristics of women. The nature and extent of patriarchy is therefore different for a middle-class white woman than a poor black-woman. This view is framed within the concept of intersectionality which seeks to examine how biological, social and cultural categorisations interact on multiple and often simultaneous levels. It is a framework which enables us to identify how systemic injustice and inequality exists on a multitude of levels.
Given the sheer diversity within feminist thought, it may well be appropriate to use the term feminisms (Coffey, 2004). At the very least, we should be careful to avoid generalisations when considering the ideology of feminism. It is also debatable to what extent feminists speak for women. The American academic Camille Paglia is a particularly forceful opponent of feminism. Paglia believes that feminism has generated a sense of victimhood that does not apply to all women. From a similar angle, Christina Hoff Sommers adds that modern feminist thought often holds an “irrational hostility to men.” She therefore claims that contemporary feminism is overtly radical and therefore disconnected from the lives of everyday women.
Outline Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860–1935) as a Key thinker
- Sex and domestic economics are hand in hand – for women to survive, they have to depend on their sexuality and body in order to please their husbands.
- Societal pressure – young girls are compelled to conform in society and prepare for motherhood by playing with toys and wearing clothes that are specifically designed for and marketed to them.
Gilman was an American socialist feminist. She experienced post-natal depression and was confined to one room by her husband when she actually needed freedom and stimulation. From this, she developed a critique of society. Women were dependent on their husbands to survive financially, so used sex to please their husbands and continue to be supported. From an early age, girls were encouraged to fulfil a domestic role, which is done through the family structure and the culture of society (such as ‘girls toys’). Therefore, women should achieve economic independence to be free from men, which could be achieved through communal living and changes to marriage laws.
Outline the Ideas of Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860-1935)
As befits a figure from the first-wave, Gilman begins with the assumption that young girls are forced to conform to their predestined role as mothers. To prevent harmful social conditioning of girls, Gilman believed there should be no difference in the clothes that little children wear or the toys they play with. It was an early form of the politics of sameness, a key theme within the ideology of feminism. In a similar vein, she argued for an equal contribution to the domestic division of labour because the domestic environment is an instrument of patriarchy. Indeed, Gilman noted that women were financially reliant upon their husbands. This uneven power structure meant that wives had to trade sexual favours for the protection offered by their menfolk.
Gilman also claimed that female contributions towards civilisation had been halted due to an androcentric culture. Women were the underdeveloped half of humanity and only when the economic dynamics of a relationship were altered could women properly escape the confines of patriarchy. This would enable a release from their domestic duties towards a more economically rewarding life outside of the home. As such, the key towards female emancipation was one of economic independence.
Although she was clearly a feminist, Gilman called herself a humanist and is associated with a wide number of causes. For instance, she was a proponent of reform Darwinism (which is based upon the belief that Darwin’s view of evolution was biased towards men as it overlooked the origins of the female brain in society that rationally chooses the best suited mate).
Outline Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) as a key thinker
- Sex versus gender – ‘one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’.
- ‘Otherness’ – men are perceived as the ‘norm’ and women deviants from this norm.
De Beauvoir was a socialist who came to see that class struggle was not enough by itself to improve the position of women. She argued that women were not ‘born’, but ‘made’, meaning that femininity is a cultural construct which is taught to women through socialisation. The roles they were socialised into turned women into slaves, as they were only able to undertake domestic duties and nothing else. In addition, men’s views were seen as the norm, so women’s views, which may differ, are viewed with suspicion and seen as deviant or inferior (the idea of otherness). Women have been socialised to accept this otherness, so saw themselves as inferior to men. However, de Beauvoir did not see the idea of a ‘feminine nature’ as positive (unlike difference feminists), so women should not turn away from the ‘male world’.
Outline the Key ideas of Simone de Beauvoir (1908−1986)
Simone de Beauvoir was known as the first existential feminist. The existentialist philosophical movement, founded by Kirkegaard in the nineteenth century, took hold among French intellectuals in the 1950s, notably Jean- Paul Sartre (de Beauvoir’s lover) and Albert Camus. Existentialism set the freedom of the individual against the constrictions placed on him or her by the moral and religious world around them and exhorted them to struggle against such restrictions by imposing their own will upon life. Failing to impose one’s own will is known as ‘bad faith’, but succeeding is known as ‘authenticity’. For de Beauvoir, for too long women had lived their lives in bad faith, imposed upon them by men.
She also developed the idea of women as the ‘Other’ (with a capital ‘O’). The idea of otherness was that men have characterised women as different, but different in a way of their (men’s) choosing, not the choosing of women themselves. De Beauvoir famously declared that ‘women are made, not born’. The problem is that they are made by men.
In her best known work, The Second Sex, de Beauvoir rejects the notion that girls are born with any nurturing instinct; rather, she asserts that they learn it from their parents and from their schooling. In existential terms, therefore, their freedom to choose their own way of life is removed almost from birth. The roles that women play have been determined for them by men.
Her solution to the plight of women was twofold. First, women must be granted the opportunity to make as many choices as men, to be able to escape from the drudgery of housework and their role in marriage as a kind of sex slave. This will be achieved largely through education, economic freedom, state-funded child care, legalised abortion and widespread contraception. But de Beauvoir also asserted that women must liberate themselves. They must seek sexual liberation and freedom from the strictures of the nuclear family.
De Beauvoir was an influence on all feminists who came after her, but especially on Friedan. While de Beauvoir used history and philosophy to confirm her theories, Friedan used specific research. However, despite their different methodology both women came to very similar conclusions.
Outline Kate Millett (1934– ) as a key thinkers
- Family – undoing the traditional family was the key to true sexual revolution.
- Portrayal of women in art and literature –patriarchal culture produced writers and literary works that were degrading to women.
Millett is an American radical feminist who argued in Sexual Politics (1970) that female oppression was political and cultural. Removing the traditional family structure would be the surest way to liberate women from patriarchy, as the family structure mirrored the patriarchal society. This is because the man dominates the family- traditionally, the wife was seen as part of the husband’s property, and the wife had no possessions of her own so was dependent on the man. Masculine authority is taught from childhood and reinforced through culture. Millett also argued that women are degraded in art and literature (an effect of the patriarchy), never having autonomy and being used as commodities for the gratification of men. This included the portrayal of romantic love, which needed to be overthrown in a sexual revolution.
Outline some of Kate Millets Key ideas
In ‘Sexual Politics,’ Millett offers a critique of patriarchy within Western literature. In her words, sex-based oppression is both political and cultural. To substantiate her position, Millett identified the role of both sexism and heterosexism within modern novelists. The portrayal of women (particularly lesbian women) was therefore largely degrading. Millett concludes that patriarchy demands a revolution in the domestic division of labour with radical alterations towards personal and family lifestyles. As a solution, she advocates undoing the traditional family unit. For her, this holds the path towards true sexual revolution. This line of argument was prevalent amongst many other second-wave feminists such as Germaine Greer (who once predicted that “women will [only] be free when they have a positive definition of female sexuality”) and contemporary writers like Nikki Gemmell (author of ‘The Bride stripped bare’).
As something of a spokesperson for second-wave feminism, Millett has been politically active in terms of campaigns to end the oppression of women. Millett has also raised awareness of how females who experience sexual, physical and emotional abuse face a set of power dynamics. That said, her concerns have gone beyond feminism with a consideration of human rights, anti-psychiatry and civil rights. She has also been active in several feminist campaigns such as the pressure group NOW and Radicalesbians. This is a somewhat unusual combination in that both organisations pursue different strategies in terms of securing the objectives of the feminist movement. The former is located within the liberal feminist traditional whereas the latter offers a more radical and exclusive approach.
On a final note, Kate Millett also claims that “patriarchy’s greatest psychological weapon is … its universality and longevity.” Millett fully recognised the ability of patriarchy to reinvent itself from one generation to the next. Each distinct wave of feminism has broken down barriers that hold women back only to find that more exist. In a modern setting, sexism may be less overt than the past but there is still a considerable amount of covert sexism and misogyny that blight women’s lives.
Outline Sheila Rowbotham (1943− ) as a key thinker
- Capitalism – women are forced to sell their labour to survive and use their labour to support their family under the capitalist system.
- The family – not just an instrument for disciplining and subjecting women to capitalism but a place where men took refuge from alienation under a capitalist economy.
Rowbotham is a socialist feminist who argued that women’s oppression was the result of economic and cultural factors. She criticised the concept of marriage, arguing that it turned women into serfs, similar to a feudal system. In addition, the way to improve the position of women was to radically change the ‘cultural conditioning’ of humanity, for instance by overthrowing capitalism and changing views on child-rearing and the workplace. Women are disadvantaged by capitalism as they have to sell their labour, but also use labour to support the family which underpins capitalism. In addition, men are able to dominate their wives, which provides them with a relief from the alienation of working in a capitalist economy.
Outline Sheila Rowbotham (1943− ) Key ideas
Rowbotham also claims that the political left needs to consider the oppression of women in cultural as well as economic terms. The preoccupation with economic determinism ignores the role played by cultural forces in the oppression of women. She also contends that historians have a duty to act as a force for social change.
Rowbotham argues that capitalism systematically oppresses both the working class and women. Female members of the proletariat thereby face a ‘double whammy’ as they are forced to sell their labour to survive and are forced to use their labour to support their husband and children. Within a capitalist system, the family unit serves as an instrument of control over women to facilitate the production and reproduction of men’s labour. She also notes that the origins of sexism predate capitalism, and that the institution of marriage closely resembles a feudalist structure.
With regard to her position along the political spectrum, Rowbotham implicitly rejects the liberal feminist argument that the women’s movement is best served via a constructive engagement with the conventional political process. According to Rowbotham, only revolutionary socialist movements have secured social gains for women. She also rejects the radical feminist view that men have no role to play within the quest for female emancipation. Women and men should stand together against the oppression caused by capitalism, a mindset that places her firmly within the second-wave of feminism. The link between capitalism and sexism is so intimate that the only way to destroy them is a fundamental change in the cultural conditioning of humanity in relation to issues such as child-rearing and the world of work. Finally, she argues that women’s liberation requires a “revolution within a revolution” because sexism is just as entrenched within left-wing men as it is amongst men on the right of the political spectrum. For instance, she notes that once a revolution is over women are often relegated to a traditional role of caregiver and housewife.
Outline Key thinker bell hooks (1952−2021)
- Women of colour –cultural concerns of women of colour brought into the mainstream feminist movement.
- Intersectionality – the mainstream feminist movement had focused mostly on the plight of white, college-educated, middle/upper-class women who had no stake in the concerns of women of colour.
hooks used a pseudonym (her grandmother) and lower-case letters to empower her to fight against oppression, without the ego associated with names. She wished to bring the concerns of black women into the mainstream feminist movement, which had previously focused on issues of interest to white, educated, middle-class women. Women of colour had been doubly disadvantaged by their race and gender, and had been torn between supporting feminism (ignoring race) and the civil rights movement (ignoring gender). Therefore, there is a need to recognise the differences women of colour experienced in their treatment, and that there should be solidarity between gender, races, and classes.
Outline Key thinker bell Hooks key ideas
The first thing to note about bell hooks is the absence of capital letters! bell hooks was the pen name for the feminist author and activist born Gloria Watkins, and the nom de plume derived from her maternal great-grandmother whom she greatly admired.
Her work focused upon the intersectionality of race, capitalism and gender. Intersectionality seeks to identify a system of oppression that moves beyond our traditional understanding of oppression. Intersectionality focuses upon how various biological, social, religious and cultural factors interact on multiple levels. This enables us to recognise the multidimensional basis of injustice within society.
According to bell hooks, systems of oppression have the ability to perpetuate themselves over time. In her book entitled ‘Ain’t I a Woman?’ bell hooks considered the historical impact of sexism and racism on black women and the devaluation of black womanhood. She identified the role played by the media and within education in the construction of a white-supremacist-capitalist-patriarchy. Her work therefore provides an insight that is otherwise lacking amongst liberal feminists with its white, middle-class and college-educated bias.
Several feminists have praised bell hooks for providing the best solution to the problem of defining an ideology as eclectic and diverse as feminism. For her, feminism was “a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation and oppression.” More importantly, the solution to the problems facing women (especially black women) within society is a form of communion and community. She argued that the loving communities can overcome inequalities of race, class and gender.
Outline the concept of otherness
The concept of otherness derives from the pioneering work of the second-wave feminist Simone de Beauvoir. Otherness seeks to examine how majority and minority identities are constructed.
Otherness claims that the representation of different social groups is controlled by those who hold a greater level of political power. Whilst identities are often thought to be natural and innate, de Beauvoir claims that this is not true. Instead, the identity of females is constructed by men to serve their own interests. Women are thereby presented as the other sex. This sense of otherness is a highly effective form of patriarchal rule and a major obstacle towards female emancipation. In her succinct words, “he is the subject, he is the absolute – she is the other.”
To combat the problem, Simone de Beauvoir prescribed a socialist system built upon gender equality and liberation from the inherent exploitation of the capitalist system. In addressing the question ‘What is a woman?’ she claimed that there is no eternal feminine or essence that defines a woman. Women are not born, they are made. Patriarchy imposes limitations upon women, and once told they are inferior, women are made to feel inferior throughout their entire lives. In contrast, non-exploitative work within a socialist system would liberate both men and women and generate a sense of solidarity among all people. It is for such insights that Simone de Beauvoir remains the most important theorist within socialist feminism and one of the most prominent feminists of the second-wave.
Outline the tensions within feminism
- Radical feminists reject the liberal feminist agenda on the ground that it fails to understand the true nature of patriarchy liberal feminists see patriarchy in terms of the historical dominance of men in society. This, says the liberal, explains the oppression of women; it is merely a characteristic of society rather than a fundamental explanation of how society works for women. Radical feminists provide a number of patriarchy all of which suggest that it lies deep in human consciousness. So deep that there is a need for a dramatic and revolutionary change in such patriarchal consciousness. Mere legal, political and cultural reform will not make a significant difference therefore
- Liberal counter this by arguing that radical feminists are imposing their own views on female consciousness which seeks to restrict their freedom of choice. As long as there is a framework of legal and political equality, women should be free to adopt their own aspirations, say liberas. In particular, liberals criticise radicals on the grounds that they do not recognise that there is a private sphere where women should be free to choose their own status and consciousness. Radicals, say the liberals, are imposing forms of consciousness on women by breaking down the barrier between the public and private sphere
- Socialist feminists argue that liberals and radicals have de-emphasized the importance of economic factors in the oppression of women. For them, the inferior, exploited status of women in economic life is the true source of their oppression. Patriarchy has economic origins, they insitis, and under modern capitalism this has identified
- Radical feminists take issue with socialists, especially Marxists for stressing economic factors excessively. The patriarchal domination of society may have economic elements, but the truth is much more complex. Patriarchy is cultural and psychological, not just economic. By over-stressing economics, radical feminists argue, socialists fail to recognise that there is till a great deal of patriarchy in socialist societies
- There is tension between different feminists and equality feminists. The difference feminists say that seeking equality is a recognition that male characteristics are superior. The feminism of difference denies male superiority and seeks a different road to liberated consciousness by treating sex differences and celebrating the superior qualities of women
