socialisation, culture, identity rdu paper 1 Flashcards
what did albert cohen (functional subcultural functionalist) believe about the w/c
w/c youths were most likely to participate in low cultural activities, and most likely to commit crime
mead and culture, tribes (3)
- found different patterns of male and female behaviour for each culture
- Arapesh men and women were gentle
- mundugumar men and women were violent
bourdieu and cultural capital
the m/c achieved in education due to their economic and cultural advantage. the curriculum is more familiar to m/c children
nayak (2003) and white wannabes
used to describe white, british males who dressed, spoke and acted in a way that was influenced by black, hip-hop culture, a famous example being ali g
mcluhan and global village (2)
- inevitable product of technological advancement, one that would bring both challenges and opportunities as humanity adapted to the new, interconnected world.
- the shift from a print-based society to an electronically mediated one would have profound effects on culture, politics, and society.
what do functionlists say about socialisation? (4)
-most children grow up to be law-abiding citizens who conform to societies expectations, if there is successful socialisation
-parsons described the family as a ‘personality factor’
-parents produce children with identities that ‘fit’ social expectations of society eg. using rewards and punishments
-parents act as role models and encourage children to imitate their behaviour eg. language, work ethic
what do the new right believe about socialisation?
argue that socialisation in modern society is becoming less effective as a result of increasing trends like divorce and absent fathers
hewitt and white british identity (2)
- britain has seen a white backlash from the white WC against what they perceive to be preferential treatment of ethnic minorities
- this has encouraged a new form of white British nationalism or identity, a good example would be the EDL.
what do interactionists believe about socialisation? (4)
-in families, it’s a two-way process because it is negotiated
-parents/careers learn from their children
-socialisation is not a universal process shared in the same way by everyone
-socialisation could be influenced by: peers, age of parents, social class, rural vs urban, ethnicity/culture
what do conflict sociologists (fem+marx) believe about socialisation? (2)
-the function of a primary socialisation is to ensure children grow up accepting inequality as facts of life
- socialisation is therefore the w/c or girls accepting conformity and subordination
agents of socialisation: religion. what does it do
reinforces basic, moral codes eg. ‘do not kill’ ‘do not steal’ and the value of monogamous relationships
agents of socialisation: religion. sociological example
butler (1995) muslims girls adapted some of their religious beliefs to fit with the circumstances around them. religion plays a big part in society, and it can be affected by the place/culture
agents of socialisation: religion. example in society
iran: in 1960’s, very americanised, girls wearing short skirts and bikinis, wanted this to change, reason why it’s so strict
agents of socialisation: education. what it does (3)
- formal education: provides the opportunity to learn through the official curriculum
- informal education: learning outside of the classroom
- hidden curriculum: what isn’t officially on the school timetable eg. punctuality
agents of socialisation: education. sociological example (2)
cultural deprivation theory: those at the bottom of the class system are deprived of norms and values, which are required for educational success.
fatalistic: they accept the situation rather than improving it, lack ambition (douglas)
bowles and gintis (1976) schooling and the hidden curriculum (2)
- schools do more than teach academic subject
- they also socialise students into roles that maintain the capitalist system, and the hidden curriculum plays a crucial role in ensuring the reproduction of social inequalities
agents of socialisation: education. example in society
hidden curriculum: punctuality, respect, social skills
agents of socialisation: the media. what is does
teaches us that high levels of consumption are normal. through the over representation of skinny, beautiful and young people
agents of socialisation: the media. sociological example (young 2002)
argues that the lower w/c live in a bulimic society: an inclusive society which focuses on consumption of material possessions as a route of happiness
agents of socialisation: the media. example in society
the sun and daily mail: all negative in society
agents of socialisation: peer groups. what it does
we rely on our peers for fun. for emotional comfort and support and for companionship. downside of friendships is called peer pressure. conformity: following along with majority
agents of socialisation: peer groups. sociological example
alder and alder (1998) studied group of white m/c teenagers in usa. peer groups are very important within the lives of these children. as cliques form and some groups gain a higher status than others
agents of socialisation: peer groups. example in society
charlie howard: gay man who drowned due to being pushed by 3 teens in 1984. teens were conforming
what do functionlists say about the role of social control? (3)
-necessary and beneficial to all
-ensures people are correctly socialised into norms and values
-ensures dysfunctions are dealt with quickly and that there is a swift return to equilibrium
what do marxists say about the role of social control? (2)
- used by the powerful in society to force or put shade the less powerful to behave as they want them to
-agencies of socialisation are used by the ruling class
how does education maintain social control according to marxists?
education is dominated by the hidden curriculum: a ruling class ideology that encourages conformity and an unquestioning acceptance of the organisation of the capitalist system
evaluation of sociological theory against agencies of social control: functionalism (3)
yes: outlines basics of society
no: doesn’t teach life skills
no: social control isn’t always affective
evaluation of sociological theory against agencies of social control: marxism (2)
yes: gives us a unique take on religion
no: not all less powerful people are controlled by the bourgeoisies norms and values
evaluation of sociological theory against agencies of social control: feminism (1)
no: outdated, change in attitudes
cooley’s key ideas on identity (1969)
our self is developed through interactions with other people
mead’s key ideas on identity (1934)
we develop our sense of self in interaction with others; because we interact in many different social contexts
bradley’s key ideas on identity (1996)
we all belong to social groups, class groups, ethnic groups, gender groups and national groups, and each of these provides us with an identity
jenkins 1996: social identity
social identity is “understanding of who we are and of who others are, and reciprocally other peoples understanding of themselves and others.”
tajfel and turner: social identity
social identity is used to categorise people into groups, help a person feel part of a group and to compare groups
theory and identity: structure and eg
idea that identity is ascribed, individuals are passive and cannot change their identity eg. marxism
theory and identity: agency and eg
idea that individuals and groups can and will change aspects of their identity eg. interactionism
what role does disability play in the formation of identity? (3)
-disability cannot be viewed as representing people who share a specific characteristic
-the variation in identity between and within disabilities means that groups and individuals respond differently within society, from refusing to advocate as ‘disabled’ to fully accepting their disability and the support that is provided
- those living with a physical or mental impairment may often find it is the most significant aspect, in terms of how they are seen by others
medical model and eg (4)
-sees disability as a medical problem, focusing on the limitations caused by the impairment, and this has long been the approach by society
-this approach leads to the defining of a disabled person by their disability or impairment
- this can lead to a ‘victim blaming’ mentality
- eg. wheel chair users need to pay more for a house with wheel chair access
social model and eg (4)
- focuses on the social and physical barriers to inclusion that may exist, such as the design of building that deny access to those with mobility problems
- society = disabling factor
- this approach can lead to the view that disability is socially constructed, since it rests on assumptions on what is ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’
- eg. all houses should be built for wheelchair users, more inclusive
hybridity: back 1996 (4)
-researched new hybrid identities
-young people played with different cultural ‘masks’ and different styles
-inter-ethnic friendships and marriages mean that groups borrow ideas from each other
- this led to the blurring of boundaries between ethnic groups
hybridity: modood 1997 (4)
-found that ethnic identities in the uk were changing
- things like wearing ethnic clothes were less important for young people than for their parents
-young people were more likely to be political and upfront about their ethnicity
-second generation immigrants were more likely see themselves as british compared to first generation immigrants
hybridity: johal and bains 1998 (2)
-brasians have a number of different identities depending on who they are with, friends/peers at school or family at home
-they suggest some of these people can ‘code switch’ - behaving one way with friends and another way with family
hybridity: ballard 1979 (2)
-found that many south asians did not feel they had to choose between their home culture and british culture
- it was suggested that many had found a culture of their own that was a hybrid of the 2 cultures, what is now referred to as ‘brasian’
hybridity: basit 1997 (3)
-suggested ethnic identities are changeable
-interviewed british asian school girls who suggested that they combine elements of british and asian cultures
- they created their identity based on their asian culture’s ethnicity, language and religions - but in a british context
hybridity: gilroy 2000 (3)
-suggested black americans who adopt gangsta fashions and develop hegemonic masculinities as a response to racism have in fact made themselves the tools of exploitation
- their styles and fashions are stolen and sold to white consumers who do not share the views of african american culture
- black culture has become a commodity to be bought and sold
hybridity: francis & archer (2005) british chinese families
- chinese families often have high expectations regarding their children’s academic success
- parents place a strong emphasis on education as a sense of discipline and hard work in their children from a young age
- while chinese students may be seen as a “model minority,” their success is rooted in a complex interplay of family dynamics, cultural capital, and social context
hahn and belt (2004) disability
surveyed 156 disabled people exploring their responses to the question; ‘even if i could take a magic pill, I would want my disability to be cured.’ results were approximately even, with 47% saying they wouldn’t, 8% unsure, and 45% wanting to be cured
goffman and disability
prejudice and discrimination can have a significant effect on the identity and self-esteem of disabled people. it can result in the ‘disabled identity’ becoming a ‘master status’
zola (1982) and disability
a sociologist who is disabled through polio writes: ‘‘the very vocabulary we use to describe ourselves is borrowed from a discriminatory able-bodied society.”
how is disability identity a social construct?
through societal attitudes, norms, and labels, people with a disability are excluded from society. society is designed to treat this group differently
Quinn 2001: same-sex relationships (2)
- studied same sex relationships of tribal people
-many Native American tribes celebrated same-sex marriage between two males, with the ‘wife’ being a feminine acting ‘berdache’ who dressed in female clothing, and the ‘husband’ was a dominant ‘amazon’ who participated in male activities and was often a female warrior
‘the homosexual role’- mcintosh 1996 (3)
- argues in western cultures, the role of homosexual male involves certain expectations or cultural characteristics
- examples may include effeminate manners, higher voice and attention to appearance
- once a male has accepted the label or identity of ‘homosexual’, he will start to fulfil these expectations so the label actually creates the behaviour
rich (1980) and women’s sexuality (3)
-womens sexuality is oppressed by men in patriarchal societies, through institutions such as marriage, sexual violence and rape and through the sexual objectification of women
- the term ‘compulsory heterosexuality’ to describe the way women are socialised into a subordinate and heterosexual role
-most women are not necessarily inherently heterosexual, but it is forced upon them
what role does sexuality play in the formation of identity?
many men and women identify primarily with their biological sex, but some men and women identify more with the biological and social characteristics of the other gender
how is heterosexuality socially constructed? (3)
- there exists an assumption that males and females have different sexual identities
- males are supposed to be promiscuous predators (wanting sex with as many women as possible)
- females are suppose to be passive and more interested in love than sex
plummer 1996 and sexual identity
partially supports McIntoshs ideas, seeing homosexuality as a process and discussing the ‘homosexual career’ where a male who has accepted the label of homosexual will seek out others and join a subculture in which stereotypical homosexual characteristics become the norm
the media and identity, homosexuality (3)
- constantly subject people to heterosexual images through films, tv and advertising
- portrayal of homosexuality in the media in the 1970’s and 80’s tended to be very stereotypical with ‘camp’ characters
- more recently television portrayals have been much more positive, normalising gay characters
lovelock (2017) and sexuality identity
- argues that the tabloid continue to be negative in its coverage of issues relating to sexuality
- the daily express placing the word ‘marry’ in inverted commas when discussing tom daly’s wedding
education and sexuality (3)
- the department for education (2019) published requirements for the teaching of sex and relationships in schools from september 2020
- needs to ensure that all of pupils needs are met, and all pupils understand the importance of equality and respect
- bullying and isolation that some children and young people experience as key reasons why schools should be made to address these issues
workplace and sexuality: ward and winstanley (2005) (2)
- different working environments impact on the environment with which individuals can be open about their sexuality or whether they should conceal it
- in workplaces, where there are close personal working relationships between colleagues, it is harder to conceal key aspects of identity such as sexuality
workplace and sexuality: ahlstedt (2018) (2)
- found that many young members of the LGBT community thrive at their jobs
- they thought it was important that they be accepted in the workplace
changing sexual identities (2)
- attitudes towards homosexuality changed enormously in the last 30 years, which is likely to have a big impact on sexuality and identity.
- homosexuality is no longer classified as a ‘condition’
changing sexuality: mccormack and anderson (2010) (3)
- males in a sixth form college, homophobia was not tolerated and seen as a sign of immaturity
- this allowed boys to relate to their male peers in a tactile and close way without being homosexualised by their behaviours
- they behaved more as girls have traditionally been allowed to towards each other eg. commenting on eachothers appearance
what do sociologists argue about gender and identity? (3)
- gender is a social construct
- we learn to behave in certain ways that reflect the physical differences between the sexes
- these expectations are culturally transmitted through institutions such as the workplace, family, religion, peers, education and the media
socialisation into gender identities (3)
- children learn the cultural patterns of behaviour expected of their gender
- gender differences are not biological or natural but are socially constructed by society
- these differences are further reinforced by agents of socialisation such as education and the mass media
feminine identity: sue sharpe (1990) and helen wilkinson (1994)
observe that women experience greater educational and employment opportunities in modern capitalist societies worldwide
masculine identity: messerschmidt (2018)
- argues that hegemonic masculinity emphasises the need to demonstrate power. authority and control over women via promiscuity and violence
gender and identity: wolf-light (1994)
characterises as ‘authoritarian and autocratic, impersonal, contemptuous and violent.’ / ‘the very image of patriarchy’
gender and identity: robinson (2006)
middle class and middle aged men, a belief in an essential and unchanging ‘deep masculinity’
gender and identity: hollows (2000)
suggest that, the emphasis on ‘sex is fun’, ‘girls behaving badly’. older women are largely excluded from adopting ‘the new femininity’
gender and identity: primary socialisation in the family (2)
-oakley (1981) is a feminist who argues that gender roles and socially constructed through socialisation
-she explains how children are socialised into their gender roles by their families
gender and identity: manipulation (oakley 1981)
encouraging behaviour that is stereotypically acceptable for the childs gender and discouraging behaviour that isn’t a norm eg. discouraging a girl from doing anything that will get her dirty like playing in mud
gender and identity: canalisation (oakley 1981)
parents channelling their children’s interests into toys, games and activities that are considered the norm for their gender eg. encouraging girls to do ballet and boys to do football
gender and identity: verbal appellation (oakley 1981)
giving children nicknames which reinforce gender expectations eg. princess and angel for girls and monster and buddy for boys
gender and identity: different activities (oakley 1981)
parents or families may encourage children to participate in activities around the home that reinforces stereotypes eg. girl helping in kitchen and boys helping washing the car
gender and identity: fagot’s study (4)
- studied 24 american families with children between 20 and 24 months old
- observed parents interacting with their children
- girls were generally encouraged to ask for help when it was needed, to follow, stay near, dance
- boys were encouraged to play with and explore toys such as trucks and building blocks, helping to build strong muscles
gender and identity: rubin (1974)
parents expect gender differences because within 24 hours of their babies birth they described their girls as softer and smaller, who thought their boys were more alert, stronger and better co-ordinated
gender and identity: sears (1977)
found parents tolerated aggression in their sons much more rather than their daughters
gender and identity: skelton (2002)
found in benwood primary school gender stereotypes were created and maintained. girls spend their leisure time differently from boys. boys relate to their peers by doing like being active, and girls relate to one another by talking, giving them an advantage due to school being a language experience
gender and identity: workplace, billington (3)
- many men see their masculine identity as centrally linked to being paid workers, with having jobs and/or careers
- men should be the breadwinners who are responsible for the living standards of their families
- the main source of feminine identity is still a women’s role as a mother despite the fact that the economy has become feminised, and the majority of adult women go out for work
gender and identity: workplace, hakim
- many women choose not be mothers and are happy for this role to be traditional notions of female identity today is more likely to be focused on education, career, independence from men and consumption than marriage and family
gender and identity: workplace, willott and griffin (1996)
- discovered ‘marginalised masculinities’ amount the long-term unemployed working class as traditional belief about ‘the good family man’ providing for wife and kids collided with the reality of an inability to provide for their partner and children
gender and identity: peer groups, martin and ruble (2004)
- from an early age, children are like ‘gender detectives’ searching for clues about gender, such as who should and shouldn’t engage with activities
gender and identity: peers groups, lamb (2)
- studied 3 to 5 year olds playing with a variety of toys
- eg. boys playing with a doll, then they became critical, they doll was abandoned as the child re joined its friends
gender and identity: religion, elliott (2009)
argues ‘the bible itself is a handbook for the subjugation of women. but then the bible, like religion, was created by men for men, and has been used ever since it’s inception as a took to keep women in their place’
gender and identity: media, tunstall 1983 (3)
- the presentation of women in the media is biased because it emphasises women’s domestic, sexual, consumer and marital activities
- women are depicted as busy housewives, as contented mothers, as eager consumers and sex objects
- this indicates bias because the media has far less to say about these male roles
gender and identity: media, gauntlett (2002) (2)
- significant in the proportion of main female characters, from 18% in 1992-93 to 43% in 1995/6
- massive decrease since the 1970s in the proportion of women who main occupation was represented as a housewife, now only 3%
age identity: life expectancy 1911-15 under 60s
63% of people died before the age of 60
age and identity: lee (2001)
claims childhood has not disappeared it has just become more complex and ambiguous and children are dependent on parents but in another sense are independent
age and identity: brooks (2001)
diagnoses parents today as obsessed with safety, and even more concerned with defining boundaries for their kids and widening their control and safety net around them
age and identity: postman (1983) (3)
- childhood is disappearing, childhood is only possible if children can be separated and therefore protected from the adult world
- they are exposed by the media the real world of danger, sex and suffering
- ‘social blurring’ has occurred, so there is little distinction between children and adults
age and identity: bauman 1996
we now gain meaning through consumption choices, influenced by designer labels, lifestyles, and images gained from the global media in a media saturated society that influences cultural shifts patterns and changes on global level
age and identity: posner 1997
discovered ‘resentment and disdain of older people’ in american society. the stereotypes, discrimination, and devaluing of the elderly seen in ageism can have significant effects on the elderly, affecting self-esteem. they may start to perceive themselves in the same ways that others in society see them and gain a self fulfilling prophecy
age and identity: bradley 1996
suggests that those who are middle aged have a higher status and power than any other age group as they are the working majority in society and tend to have more wealth in this stage of life
age and identity: featherstone and hepworth (2005)
media images of aging, which have been a source of negative identities and stereotypes, can also create new identities and suggest that as the population ages, more positive images may emerge
what role does social class play in the role of identity? (3)
- social class has generally been based on occupation
- from an early age we are socialised into the lifestyles and values of the class of our parents
- we learn to identify with member of our own social class and become aware of the differences that separate us from other social classes
class and identity: marshall et al. (1988) (2)
- 60% of their sample thought of themselves as belonging to a particular social class
- 75% agreed that people are born into a social class, and it is difficult to move from one social class to another
socialisation into class identities: reay (1998) (4)
- detailed study of 33 others in London
- m/c mothers had time and energy to spend reading to their children, making them more confident to talk to teachers
- w/c had more of a struggle, had fewer cultural resources eg. verbal confidence and knowledge
- children learn about social norms by imitating their parents
class and identity: socialisation into class identities, bernstein (1990)
two types of language codes ‘restricted’ and ‘elaborated’ code
class and identity: secondary socialisation and peer groups, adler and adler (1998) (3)
- studied middle class children in america
- peer groups are very important in the lives of pre-adolescent children
- children tended to mix with children of similar classes and therefore shared the same norms and values
class and identity: secondary socialisation, willis (1997) (3)
- longitudinal study of ‘the lads’
- formed an anti school subculture
- the ‘lads’ didn’t want to deviate from this group due to bullying, n+v will be followed even if they are deviant
class and identity: education, skeleton (2001) (4)
- schools tend to reflect the values of the surrounding neighbourhood
- primary school set in a deprived area
- when young boys came to the school, they brought with them the attitudes they picked up from the local ‘lads’
- the schools control strategies of locked gates and security cameras reflected the tough values that were prized in the local community
class and identity: education, bourdieu (1997) (2)
- schools are middle class institutions that are run by the middle class
- the forms of knowledge, interactions, values and communicating ideas the middle class children possess are developed further and rewarded by the education system
class and identity: media, jhally and lewis (1992) (2)
- american tv between 1971 and 1989, 90% of characters were m/c, whilst the % of w/c characters fell from 4% to 1%
- soaps in britain see w/c life in a more positive light, whereas america associates this with single parents and delinquent children eg. shameless and skins
class and identity: cultural characteristics of upper class (2)
- u/c share a strong sense of identity
- children born in this class learn distinct ways of speaking, mannerisms, attitudes and values
class and identity: cultural characteristics of upper class, Scott (1982) (2)
- characterised by a high degree of social cohesion
- children of upper class families are usually educated in top public schools eg. eaton and harrow
class and identity: cultural characteristics of upper class, Heath and Payne (1999)
upper class identities are maintained by restricting and closing access to ‘economic and political networks of mutual self interest’
class and identity: cultural characteristics of middle class, Roberts (2001) (2)
- the present day middle classes are distinguished by the fact there are so many lifestyles’ variations among them, some related to age, gender, ethnicity and education
- the middle classes are characterised by a more active and diverse range ion leisure activities than the working class
class and identity: cultural characteristics of working class, Hout (2008)
- the proportion of people identifying as w/c has tracked the decline in the proportion engaged in w/c occupations, with the consequence that more people now regard themselves as m/c than w/c
class and identity: debates about the decline in class identities, Savage (3)
- investigated the class identities of 178 people
- very few of their sample believed Britain was a classless society
- most of the people being interviewed were quite hesitant about identifying themselves a members of any class
postmodernists and class identity
class identity has fragmented into numerous separate identities; gender, sex, ethnicity and region
class and identity: pakulski and waters (1996) (2)
- there has been a shift from production to consumption in the defining of identities
- we are defined by what we buy, not what we do
ethnicity and identity: modood (1997) (2)
- the category ‘asians’ includes different nationalities such as Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and Indians
- includes different religious groups such as muslims, hindus and Sikhs
nationality and identity: Anderson (1983) (2)
- a nation is a ‘imagined community’
- a nationally identity is socially constructed via the media, education, religion
nationality and identity: billig (1995)
the construction of national identity is extremely useful to governments as its used when persuading young men and women to go to war
socialisation into national identities: secondary socialisation, education, green (1997) (3)
- education helps form national identities by giving us one national curriculum where we are socialised into one national culture through a common language and the teaching of national history, literature and religion
- the teaching of these subjects aims to promote nationalism
- one national curriculum = ethnocentric
socialisation into national identities: secondary socialisation, media, hall (1992) (2)
- every nation has a collection of stories about its shared experiences, sorrows, triumphs and disasters, which are told through the media in order to construct their sense of national identity
- eg. William and Kate Middletons wedding
socialisation into ethnic identities, primary socialisation, butler (1995) (3)
- a group of muslim girls who live in the uk shows how the religious beliefs of their family can be adapted to fit changing circumstances
- moving away from traditions of their parents
- their experience of them living it Britain has led them to regard certain certain Pakistani and Bangladeshi customs as irrelevant to their lives
socialisation into ethnic identities, primary socialisation, ghumann (1999) (2)
- found that tradition, religion and family values played an important part in the upbringing of second-generation Asians in the uk
- again children tend to be socialised into the extended family, with the emphasis on duty, loyalty and honour
socialisation into ethnic identities, secondary socialisation, education, Bourdieu (1997) (2)
- how the dominant culture penetrates many educational institutions and is reproduced in the minds, values and activities of dominant groups of wider society
- children from ethnic backgrounds are disadvantaged in the British education system
socialisation into ethnic identities, secondary socialisation, education, coard (1971) (3)
- the content of education ignored black people
- led to low self esteem amongst black pupils
- the national curriculum has been criticised for being too ethnocentric
socialisation into ethnic identities, secondary socialisation, media, Gillespie (1993) (3)
- studies Sikhs in southall
- shows how the films produced by the Indian film industry (Bollywood) are enormously popular in this community
- socialises younger children into asian cultured and languages
socialisation into ethnic identities, secondary socialisation, peer groups, Gilroy (1993)
music such as hiphop is shared by youngsters of their culture
cultural characteristics of minority ethnic groups, Wirth (1945)
defined a minority group as “any group of people who, because of their physical and cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in society.”
cultural characteristics of minority ethnic groups, wagley and Harris (1958) (5 characteristics + criticisms)
- unequal treatment and less power over their lives: outdated, acts against discrimination, generalised
- distinguishing physical or cultural traits eg. skin colour: mental traits?
- involuntary membership in the group: part of your identity eg. disability, skin colour
- awareness of subordination: not always aware they are marginalised
- high rate of in group marriage: outdated, interracial, decline of arranged marriages
cultural characteristics of minority ethnic groups, dollard (1939) (2)
- frustration aggression theory
- the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group
englishness/britishness: kumar (2003) (2)
- unlike the Scots, Welsh and Irish, the English find it difficult to say who they are, and that English national identity is elusive
- the long history of the English as an imperial people have developed a sense of ‘missionary nationalism’
englishness/britishness: Sardar (2002) (3)
- the world is in the middle of a global identity crisis, many of the old divides of East versus west and capitalist versus communist have broken down
- Britain, having lost his empire and feeling very small in a global world, is unsure about whether it should become more American or European
- he argues that to develop a more confident identity, we must embrace diversity but also focus on what makes us the same - our common identity
englishness/britishness: waters (1995) the British identity may be under threat (5)
- the boundaries between nation-states may break less significant as transnational companies and international companies and financial markets increasingly dominate world trade. this may have a number of implications for British culture and identity
- British identity may be diluted as British companies are taken over by foreign concerns or as multination invest into Britain
- televisions, films, and music are increasingly being produced for the international market
- global influences for eg. membership of the European Union which was seen by some as a threat to British sovereignty (power)
- possibility that national cultures may go into decline, may lead to multicultural societies, through intermarriage, or second-generation members of ethnic minority groups subscribe to norms and values from both their inherited and adopted values
hybrid identities in relation to changing ethnic identities: back (1996) (2)
- did find cultural hybridity, but it was not just black youths who developed hybrid identities
- white youths were attracted to aspects of black culture, and local youths from all ethnic backgrounds developed a sort of shared identity based on mixed ethnicity and ‘neighbourhood nationalism’- a feeling of solidarity and common identity with people from the same area
hybrid identities in relation to changing ethnic identities: James (1993) (2)
- the experience of racism unified the culture and identity of African-caribbeans in the uk
- black people from the Caribbean had cultural differences based on their island and may also have been divided based on the darkness of skin, a hierarchy of colour imposed by colonialism
hybrid identities in relation to changing ethnic identities: Jacobson (1997) (2)
- many young Pakistanis are adopting a strong islamic identity
- young British muslims face difficulties and problems , and a strong muslim identity gives them a sense of stability and security
hybrid identities in relation to changing ethnic identities: modood (1997)
- found a number of generational differences over the issue of identity, suggesting that second generation ethnic minorities from both afro-caribbean and asian backgrounds felt much more British than their parent
socialisation, lees, peer pressure and teenage girls (2)
- influences everything from their social interactions to their self-perception and mental health
- positive and negative, and it is shaped by gender norms, societal expectations, and individual characteristics
socialisation, mulvey, male gaze
- women are often objectified and passive, while men are active subjects of desire and control
socialisation, waddington, canteen culture
- significance of informal socialization in maintaining or challenging societal power structures, particularly in male-dominated fields like policing
mac an ghaill and macho lads (3)
- many working-class boys perform a very traditional form of masculinity
- this involves being physically tough, rejecting academic achievement, and adhering to stereotypical norms about what it means to be a “real man”
- caused by economic changes, changes of family structure and the rise of LGBTQ+
jackson lads and ladettes (3)
- lads: popular, saw school work as uncool, attention cravers, ladish masculinity - working hard seen as feminine
- ladettes: behave like lads, bully weaker lads, loud + coarse, wanted to be seen as popular, being overly feminine (attractive) was important
- adopted these behaviours due to fear of failure (in society ability is highly valued), fear of appearing academically stupid, failure is relative - claimed they failed because they went out not because they were stupid
mackintosh and moonie, invisibility and social closure in the upper class (2)
- inequality is not just about wealth but also about social connections, cultural capital, and the ability to maintain social distance from other classes
- by remaining “invisible” and controlling access to key resources like education and networks, they are able to perpetuate their dominance in society without drawing attention to the fact that they are benefiting from systemic advantages
fox and the English class system (3)
- discusses upper middles, middle middles, and lower middles to highlight these differences
- likely to be a big difference between public sector professionals eg. teachers and nurses and private sector professionals such as lawyers and bankers
- thus it is unlikely that everyone who sees themselves as middle class shares a common experience or identity
mcIntosh and the homosexual role (3)
- argued that in western cultures the identity of homosexual male involves certain expectations of cultural characteristics
- for example, the homosexual role may include effeminate mannerisms, a higher voice and attention to appearance
- once a male has accepted the label or identity of ‘homosexual’ he will start to fulfill these expectations, so the label creates the behaviour
hockey & james and the infantilisation of the elderly (2)
- old age and childhood are socially constructed in a similar way, having lost their ‘parenthood’ status
- terms such as ‘gaga’ are used, relating to baby noises, and the elderly are also seen as helpless and vulnerable, dependant and needing care
