Social SAQ Flashcards
Tajfel et al(1971) (testable)
A: to assess the effects of social categorisation on minimal groups which would display ingroup favouritism and outgroup discrimination
P:
• the sample of 48 british schoolboys(age 14-15) who had no previous social interactions
• they were randomly allocated into three groups based on their preference of Klee or Kandinsky paintings
• a deception designed to set up the idea of ‘us’ and ‘them’ in their minds
• minimal foundation–arbitary categorication
• two systems were designed to test out who the boys favoured: their own group or the other group
• The first system is that the sum of the two scores has to be 15. The point scores for each boy were directly linked which establishes the inversly proportional relationship . It means that if the score for the participant increases, the score for the other boy decreases.
• In the second system,the high value score chosen for the group member would also benefit the out-group. Similarily, if the group member chose a low value, less points would be awarded to the other group.
• They have to apply the ‘rational’ and ‘utalitarian’ principles to obtain the maximum benefit for all
R:
• the participants favoured their own group in the distribution of rewards which shows the in-group favouritism
• the participants used the strategies to maximise the total benefits to a group
• their behaviours were determined by a random intergroup catergorization
• it is the natural tendency for group members to favour their in-group even though they don’t have any previous social connections
E:
Strength:
• rigorously controlled by the method of random allocation
• minimal group: no previous social interactions
• can be replicated
Limitation:
• participant bias as they don’t represent the general public
• low ecological validity
Cialdini et al(1976)
Aim:
• To investigate the tendency to associate one”s self publicly with successful others
Method A:
• Fans from large U.S. prestigious football universities were participants in a field experiment (in large lecture halls across 7 different schools) where they observed student clothing/apparel on a Monday following a big football game.
Results A:
• Students tended to wear more apparel associating themselves with their own university (e.g. jersey or sweatshirt) when the football team won compared to when they lost.
Method B:
• Based on these findings, researchers decided to call students and interview them about the performance of their schools football team following a game.
Results B:
• People tended to use the pronoun “we” more to describe their team when they won and “they” more when the team had lost.
• In some experiments, researchers manipulated the feelings of the participants via distraction tasks and giving positive/negative feedback.
• The researchers were able to show that people tend to associate with positive others most closely when their own public image is not threatened.
Conclusion:
• Demonstrates that people seek a positive social identity and that their social identity is affected by being a part of their group so that you are more positive towards anything that your own group represents.
• Membership of a social group affects the behaviour of an individual.
Evaluation:
Strength:
High ecological validity—a field experiment based on naturalistic observations
Limitation:
Lack reliability—no controlled variables
Results could not be generalized—sample only consists US university students
Bandura 1961
A: to determine whether children would learn aggressive behaviour through observation by imitating an adult model
M:
• sample: mixed gender 3-6 yrs old children
• matched-pairs design by evenly allocating the participants into groups with similar level of aggression (interviews from parents)
• they were assigned into 3 different conditions:
-condition 1: exposed 10 minutes video of an aggressive model showing physical and verbal aggression towards an Bobo Doll
-condition 2: similar period of time of a non-aggressive model who assembled the toys
-control: didn’t see any model
• They were led into a room for aggression arousal as they weren’t allowed to play the attractive toys from the other children
• Then they were led to another room full of toys including the Bobo Doll which they could play freely
- The researchers take the video of the children’s behaviours to gain qualitative data for further analysis.
R:
• Children exposed to aggressive behaviour imitated the same aggression physically and verbally. This indicated the role of observational learning.
• Children exposed to the non‐aggressive model and those in the control group did not demonstrate this aggressive behaviour.
• Boys were more likely to imitate the physical aggression
• Girls were more likely to imitate the verbal aggression
• Young children copy observed behaviour and that observed violence leads to enacted violence.
• Children learnt behaviour through observation and imitation of the adult model without reinforcement and deliberate teaching
E:
• Strengths:
-appropriate age sample for demonstrating social learning
-controlled environment (matched-pair design)
• Limitation:
-induced aggression(learnt permanent behaviour of aggression)
-oversimplification of learning process
-methodological considerations–not standardized adult aggression models
-the children might demonstrate the demand characteristics
-low ecological validity as it is a lab experiment
-no informed consent
-confidentiality–videos of the children
Hamilton &Gifford(1976)
A: to investigate the formation of the stereotype towards minority group
M: two groups A (26) and B (13)
• the participants were asked to give positive or negative statements about one individual in one of the two groups
• the number of positive and negative comments were the same
• the participants overestimated the number of negative traits in the minority group
R:
• the minority group was by nature smaller and their negative behaviours were more distinct and representative
• negative stereotypes are more common for minority groups than for the majority
Illusory correlations (connections that don’t really exist)
• Cognitive bias
• Illusory correlation is when two relatively unusual events occur simultaneously, and incorrect inference is drawn from this co‐occurrence.
• Sometimes a perception can be formed that there is a relationship between events, actions and behaviours, in fact no relationship exists.
• People overestimate the link between two variables
Steele and Aronson 1995
Aim: To demonstrate the existence and self-fulfilling prophecy effect of stereotype threat.
Method:
- Participants were black and white university students
- Participants were given a challenging verbal test and they were split into two different conditions.
-Experimental condition ( stereotype-threat): participants were told that the aim of the test is to diagnose intellectual ability.
- Control condition: participants were told that the purpose of the research had nothing to do with intellectual ability.
- The assumption was that linking the test to intellectual ability would activate the existing racial stereotypes, so black participants faced the threat of fulfilling the stereotype.
Results:
- White participants performed equally in both conditions.
- Black participants performed as well as white participants in the non-diagnostic condition. However, they performed worse than white participants in the diagnostic condition.
Conclusion:
Linking the test to diagnosing ability undermines the performance of black students through stereotype threat. This means that black participants conform to the negative group stereotype, as they become anxious, which affects their test performance.
Strengths:
• Study’s design effectively highlighted the presence of stereotype threat, therefore meeting the aim of the research.
Limitations:
• Laboratory experiment testing performance on a standardised test, therefore the ecological validity is low.
• Study used random assignment to minimize confounding variables.
Spencer et al (1999)–women and maths
A: to test the effect of stereotype threat on intellectual performance in terms of gender differences
M:
• sample: 28 men and 28 women from US University
• they were required to complete at least one sememster of calculus and then completed an exam
• Experiment 1–women and men completed an easy or difficult maths exam. Performance was equivalent when the test was easy, but men outperformed women when the test was more difficult(subconscious stereotype threat)
• Experiment 2–the gender stereotype was addressed as the participants were told that their mathmatical ability would depend on their gender differences. Then they completed the exam of the same difficulty.
R:
• Women performed poorly then men as a result of stereotype threat, especially in the condition when gender differences were highlighted.
• The spotlight anxiety was triggered by stereotype threat, which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance.
E:
In this study, the results show that women performed poorly than men when they were under the stereotype threat of gender bias. When the gender differences were highlighted, the mechanism of spotlight anxiety was activated which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance. Therefore, it demonstrates the effect of stereotype as it might lead to underperformance in some circumstances.
Berry (1967)
Aim: To investigate whether rates of conformity were higher in individualist or collectivist cultures(based on ecocultural variables)
Method:
Berry focused on two societies with subsistence-level economies (as opposed to industrial or technological economies) based on daily needs for food and shelter:
• the Temne (Sierra Leone)
• the Inuit (Canada).
He then applied the Asch paradigm to both groups.
Results:
• There was a correlation between the level of interdependence and the rate of conformity
• His comparative study showed that conformity was higher in the more collectivist Temne culture. In theory, this happens because an agricultural economy demands a higher degree of cooperation, and therefore conformity, while a hunting-fishing economy does not .
• Society tends to produce level of conformity required by their economy
• Agricultural economy– higher rate of conformity
• Hunting-fishing economy–lower rate of conformity
Conclusion:
• An agricultural economy may require cooperation
• In theory, this level of interdependence and cooperation shapes social norms – the collective effort of agriculture shapes a collectivist society.
• By contrast, fishing or hunting can be done completely solo, with no collective effort. This level of economic independence may shape social norms, and this in turn may impact behaviours like conformity.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
• Cross-cultural study limits ethnocentrism.( judging another culture by the values and standards of one’s own culture)
Limitations:
• Only two cultures studied which limits the generalisability, particularly to non-subsistence (not maintaining or supporting oneself) cultures.
Ethical considerations:
• Research into conformity requires researchers to deceive participants.
• Informed consent
Methodological considerations:
• The Asch paradigm is often criticised for its artificiality.
• Emic: understand from individual viewpoint
• Etic: make cross-cultral comparisons between cultural groups
Levine et al (2001)
A: to investigate prosocial behaviour as a function of collectivism/individualism
M: sample: participants across 23 countries
• field experiment/ covert experiment
• naive participants were presented with three different help-inducing scenarios:
1. Person drops a pen in the street
2. Person with leg brace drops magazines
3. Blind person needs help crossing the street
R: collectivist countries scored higher in terms of prosocial behaviours (Rio 93%)
• countries with low socio-economic status were more prosocial
C: there are cross-cultural differences in prosocial behaviour
E:
Strengths:
• high ecological validity
• large sample size–high generalizability
Limitations:
• difficult to replicate due to large sample size and cost
• correlational results–no cause-and-effect relationship
• reductionist approach–extraneous variables may have compromised the results
Odden and Rochat (2004)
A: to investigate the role of observational learning in enculturation
M:
• 28 children (between 4-12 years of age) were observed longitudinally in the context of their village life (family, peers, school, church, other village events)
• Parents, caretakers, teachers and other adult influences on the children were interviewed about their child-development and parenting
• At the same time, 22 boys (between 5-12 years of age) were observed in their cultural learning of subsistence fishing. Semi-structured interviews were conducted upon the boys and their fishing relatives.
Results:
• Children appear to learn chores by watching their parents and elder siblings
• Over the course of the two-year study, the researchers never observed a parent explaining a chore to a child
• The interviews revealed that most parents did not think such explicit instruction was consistent with the Samoan way.
• The children learn the cultural norms by observing their parents and silings
E:
Strengths:
• Odden was a member of the community being studied which allowed access that may have otherwise not been possible.
• Naturalistic observation: results more reliable
Weaknesses:
• Results could not be generalized. The sample is very limited to a narrow population.
• Researcher bias: ambiguous method of recording the obeserved behaviours
Ethical considerations:
• No parental informed consent by using the sample of children
Uchinda et al (2014)
A: to test the effects of globalization which cause hikikomori
M:
• Sample of Japanese university students
• Firstly, the participants were given a standardized test to see whether they were at high risk or low risk for hikikomori
• Then they were given a test to measure their attitudes about social harmony and social conformity (perception of the current self, the ideal self and the Japanese society as a whole)
• They were given a test to measure their sense of local identity(collectivism) and global identity (individualism)
The method involved a sample of Japanese university students who took 3 tests. A standardised test to see whether they were at high or low risk for Hikikomori, a test which measured their attitudes about social harmony and conformity and a test which measured their sense of local and global identity.
R:
• Both groups agreed that social harmony and conformity were highly valued in Japanese society
• High-risk students for Hikikomori ranked social harmony much less than low-risk students (high-risk students were less likely to conform to the Japanese society to seek social harmony)
• High-risk students scored lower than low-risk students on both local and global identity
• Whilst Japanese youths do not identify with global culture, they are also not willing to conform to the local culture norms.
• Therefore, this study shows that there is the conflict between local and global culture which might affect behaviour.
E:
• Sampling bias–the students are only at “high-risk” rather than developing the actual disorder
• The results could not be generalized as it only includes Japanese university students
• The emic approach–The results are not transferable as it could only apply to certain cultural group
Chiu et al
- to investigate whether exposing American participants to another culture would increase stereotypes about their own culture
- Independent sample design – 60 American undergraduates
- “Single condition” : participants were shown a Nike ad
- ” Joint Presentation condition.” : participants saw the same ad placed next to an ad for a Chinese sport shoe
- In both conditions, participants were asked to rate the “likeability” of the Nike ad
- Then they took a test to measure attitudes towards cultural dimensions associated with American and Chinese culture
R: - participants in “joint presentation condition” rated American much more individualistic where they feel that they have more control over their lives.
- less collectivistic, believe in duty to family or the need to conform to social norms
- results were strongest in individuals with high identification with local identity
C:
By being exposed to two cultures at the same time, American identity and values become more salient than the group who only sees the American ad.
Oliner et al
A: to describe the altruistic personality using participants who had rescued Jews during the Holocaust / the importance of observational learning from parents
M: open-ended questionnaires– rich, thick data/correlation
P:
• 400 Europeans who had rescued Jews from WW2 as well as rescued survivors, bystanders who did not help in the Holocaust. (the contrast between helpers and bystanders)
• The researcher made correlations between altruism and personality based on the questionnaire.
• Rescurer’s personality: compassion, law and order
• Bystanders’ personality: feelings of uncertainty, hopelessness, fear
• According to Oliner, parents played a key role in shaping the altruistic personality of rescuers
R:
• The rescuers described their parents as avoiding the use of punishment, making their children aware of the consequences of their actions and their social responsibility to the others.
• Oliner theorised that the role modelling of the parents influenced the development of an altruistic personality.
