Cognitive Definition

Question 1

Principles of cognitive psychology

Answer 1

• Human beings are information processors
• Mental processes can be studied scientifically
• Mental representations guide behaviour

Question 2

Cognitive

Answer 2

involving conscious mental activities (thinking, understanding, learning and remembering)

Question 3

Cognition

Answer 3

the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

Question 4

Cognitive psychology

Answer 4

the study of mental processes including memory, perception, language and problem solving.

Question 5

Schema

Answer 5

A schema is a mental representation of an individual’s pre-existing knowledge about the world and experiences in the world. (patterns in long-term memory)

Question 6

Schema processing

Answer 6

• Top-down processing – sensory inputs are processed through existing mental representations (the opposite process is bottom-up processing, which focuses on the features of the sensory inputs, not related cognitions).
• Pattern recognition – inputs are ‘matched’ to existing mental representations.
• Stereotyping – using a fixed mental representation to perceive other people.

Question 7

Encoding

Answer 7

The conversion of incoming information into a mental construct that can be stored in the brain.

Question 8

Processes of memory

Answer 8

Encoding — Storage—Retrieval

Question 9

Thinking

Answer 9

• The process of using knowledge and information to make plans and make interpretations. It involves creativity, problem solving, reasoning and decision making.
• To modify the incoming information through :
analysis, synthesis and categorization.

Question 10

Decision-making

Answer 10

A cognitive process that involves selecting one of the possible beliefs or actions and making a choice between some alternatives.

Question 11

Problem Solving

Answer 11

Thinking that is directed toward solving specific problem by means of a set of mental strategies

Question 12

Intuitive thinking

Answer 12

The thought processes behind both behaviours are so automatic that they happen without conscious awareness

Question 13

Rational thinking

Answer 13

The abstract and conscious thinking process which generates judgements

Question 14

Memory

Answer 14

The cognitive process in which information is encoded, stored and retrieved

Question 15

Evaluate Working Memory Model

Answer 15

Strength:
• Empirical support from dual-task experiments
• Dynamic model(not static)
• The WMM replaced the more unitary and passive MSM with a focus
• Application for educational settings, helpful in understanding literacy and numeracy skills and problems.
• Explain the complexities of STM in comparison to MSM and assists in understanding the formation of false memory.
• The WMM is supported by a broad body of empirical data and has been updated over the years to account for early issues (The Episodic Buffer 2000)
Limitations:
• The early model was criticised for the unclear role of the Central Executive. This issue wass later clarified by the addition of the Episodic Buffer.
• The model has also been criticised for its focus on the structure of memory rather than the processing of information.
• There is little evidence to support the role of the CE.
• Incomplete–focus on STM. There is no link to LTM.
The Visualspatial sketchpad is too simplistic an explanation for spatial processing. Lieberman suggests that the VSS shoudl be divided to account for visual and spaial information seperately.

Question 16

Definition of working memory model

Answer 16

The working memory model (WMM) was proposed by Baddeley and Hitch, it addresses one aspect of memory, short-term or immediate memory. Baddeley and Hitch argued against the previous MSM proposed by Alkinson & Shiffrin as they believed that STM was not just one store but a number of different stores. According to the Working Memory Model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974, there are four different components which interact with each other to form short-term memory, including the Phonological Loop (PL), the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (VSSP), the Central Executive and the Episodic Buffer. The Central Executive (CE) is responsible for the control and coordination of the activities in two different slave systems: the phonological loop which holds auditory information and the VSSP which processes visual and spatial information. As each component has limited time and capacity to store the information, the Episodic Buffer integrates memories in multiple modes and transfers the information between working memory and long-term memory. Therefore, this model emphasizes the modality-specific nature of working memory as humans process incoming information separately to reduce the cognitive load.

Question 17

Reconstructive memory

Answer 17

Memory is affected by a range of biological, social and cultural factors, and no matter how much people rely on their own memory of events, the reality is that memory cannot always be trusted. Bartlett proposed the idea that memory is reconstructive as it is influenced at the encoding stage by schemas. He believed that we tend to remember the overall meaning of sth. and we reconstruct the information to some extent in order to fit our previous expectation through schema processing. Schemas and memory have a bidirectional relationship, meaning that they influence each other. New experiences and memories result in new schemas, which in turn affect the encoding, storage and retrieval of new memories.

Question 18

Discuss the influence of emotion on cognitive processes

empathy-altruism theory

Answer 18

This SAQ will discuss ( by offering a balanced review with a range of arguments) the influence of empathy on the cognitive process of decision-making to help others with the support of empathy-altruism theory proposed by Batson. An emotion is a complex experience which results in changes including physiological arousal, subjective feelings and associated behaviours. For example, the emotion of empathy can trigger the physiological arousal of the helper which influence their decision-making process (making a choice between some alternatives) to help or not. Batson’s theory of empathy helped to develop an understanding of the influence of emotion on the cognitive process of decision-making and altruism.

Empathy is an emotional response includes a range of feelings that are focused on others rather than oneself, such as sympathy, compassion, warmth and tenderness According to Batson’s empathy-altruism theory, empathy is generated when another person is perceived to be in need. He argued that individuals with high-empathy will help no matter what, individuals with low-empathy will help only when the escape from the empathy demand is difficult. Furthermore, if the person who needs help is more similar to oneself, have prior contact (friendship, kinship), the observer is more likely to have empathy and help.

Question 19

Describe one theory of thinking and decision-making

Answer 19

This response will describe (by giving a detailed account) of the theory of thinking and decision-making. Thinking is the process by which individuals use the acquired knowledge to make plans and decisions. Decision-making is a cognitive process that involves selecting one of the possible beliefs or actions and making a choice between some alternatives. As cognitive psychologists believe that mental representations and cognitive processes guide human behaviour, the arousal-cost-reward model explains the influence of rational thinking on prosocial behaviour and bystandarism.

Arousal-cost-reward model is based on the assumption that people use rational thinking to analyze the situation rather than acting intuitively based on automatic thoughts. Rational thinking is a conscious thinking process which requires effort and time to process the information, it is less likely to create a sense of certitude than intuitive thinking. (thinking without conscious awareness) According to arousal-cost-reward model, when people observe an emergency situation, it will trigger their unpleasant negative emotional response such as fear and distress. As they are uncertain about the situation, they use rational thinking to make a cost-reward analysis to evaluate the consequences of their decisions before taking the helping action. For example, if the “cost” of not helping is the feeling of guilt and self-blame, but the “reward” of helping is receiving praise from the victim or the others, people are more likely to intervene and have prosocial behaviour. Conversly, if the “cost” of helping is physical harm, but the “reward” of not helping is to continue daily work without any other concerns, people are more likely to ignore the situation and not help. This will result in the bystander effect, which is the the phenomenon in which individuals do not offer help when other passive bystanders are present despite being aware of another person’s suffering. Therefore, the model suggests that humans rely on the cognitive process of rational thinking to make decisions and take actions.

Pillivan et al.

In conclusion, the study Pillivan et al  has served as empirical evidence to support the arousal-cost-reward model and providing insight into human cognitive processes in terms of thinking and decision-making.