Social Psychology (Social dilemmas) Flashcards
Jans topics
what happened in the faravelli 2007 base study?
-ppts were freshmen and senior economic and sociology majors
-ppts given situation with 2 islands with 1 person per island
-islands have 12 trees on, the amount of fruit the trees dispense are varied
-asked how to split the trees to get a “fair” amount of fruit
-three options: equal amount of fruits (highest same number)
equal tree split
maximin option (the highest possible number of fruits for each person)
what were the results from Faravelli 2007 base study?
-found that economic freshmen has a equal split of the options, seniors favoured maximin and sociology students favoured the equal amount of fruits
what happened to the results of faravelli 2007 when they used a external reason for the difference in fruit?
-found that across all students a higher maximin preference
what happened to the results of faravelli 2007 when they used a internal reasons?
-found a shift to preference for max total in all groups
what happened to the results of faravelli 2007 when there was a specific number of fruits that each person needed to survive?
-preferred to shift to the equality and maximin option, but where possible meeting the needs of the persons fruit quantity
what does a focus on large groups do for distributive justice?
asks how society can be created to reach DJ for its members during their lifetimes
what is the experiment within the book the theory of moral sentiments?
- people start with nothing, no society
-have to build a society but have no idea what position they will be in
-the original position is the fairest shot to create a society that is fair to everyone
-have to come to certain principles
what are the three principles that the theory of moral sentiments has to come to?
- greatest equal liberty
- difference principle
- social institutions
what is meant by the greatest equal liberty principle?
everyone should have equal right to most extensive total system of equal basic liberties
what is meant by the difference principle?
the best possible solution for the least advantaged
-added the opportunity principle - everyone should be open to all conditions of fair & equality of opportunity
what is meant by the social institutions principle?
the society will have social institutions that people have to use and follow chains of commitment as those w lower power are able to complain
what did Tawney 1931 say about true equality of opportunity?
upon an open road, but upon an equal start
what are examples of the fairest opportunities in society?
in the drafts for ww1 (1917) and the Vietnam war (1969), mens names were put into a hat and randomly drawn
-giving the fairest option from the fault of the veil of ignorance
what is the veil of ignorance?
shielding oneself from actual reality of society
what did Oppenheimer et al 1987 experiment?
the veil of ignorance
what happened in Oppenheimer et al 1987?
-ppts split into 29 groups with 5 ppts in each
-had multiple income distributions available to them, varying from large differences between high and low to small differences
-has to choose unknowingly from four principles
-then had to pick from bag to give them 1-5 to select how much they got
what were the results of Oppenheimer et al 1987?
4 groups picked the maximise the average
25 groups chose to maximise the average with floor constraint
-> veil of ignorance permits the group tp reach stable decisions
what were the four options available to choose from in Oppenheimer et al 1987?
difference principle (max the floor)
utilitarianism (max the average income)
mixed 1 (max avg income w floor constraint)
mixed 2 (max avg income range constraint)
what did Norton & Ariely 2011 research?
-the veil of ignorance
asked 5522 ppts how equal they though society was and measured the ppts wealth levels
-found large differences in-between the ideal wealth levels amongst the 5 categories and the actual wealth levels
-the top 20% owned 85% of wealth, the 2nd 20% 10% and middle less than 5% and spreads the rest amongst bottom 40%
what can be done about disparities in income?
-taxes can redistribute wealth
-support those in need through donations
-investment in poorer areas to encourage activity
what is Nozicks 1974 entitlement theory?
for people meeting together behind a veil of ignorance to decide who gets what, knowing nothing about any special entitlements people may have, will treat anything distributed as manna from heaven
what is limitation of redistribution?
it is a violation of peoples rights
view taxation of earnings from labour the same as forced labour
why does wealth inequality matter?
as house prices increase, those lower earners are less able to buy houses -> widening the poverty gap between rich and poor
-frolich & Oppenheimer 1990
what did Frolich & Oppenheimer 1990 research?
gave ppts tasks to earn money
-had to chose principles to distribute money once it has been learnt, told them that those who earn more had to share their wealth
-found that 15/18 groups chose to max the avg w floor constraint and 3 chose to max avg with no floor constraint, also that redistribution of wealth did not cause a decline of effort
how did mead 1937 define cooperation?
the act of working together to one end
what does the veil of ignorance mean?
where no one knows their place in society, class position, social status, or their fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, including intelligence and strength.
(Rawls)
what contrasts the difference principle in the uK?
the UK has relatively high income inequality and low earnings mobility (Coral 2013)
what is a definition for distributive justice?
refers to the fair allocation of benefits and burdens in society among individuals with varying needs and claims, based on moral norms, entitlements, efficiency, and other relevant considerations
(Kaufman, 2012)
what is harsanyis theory of dj?
An individual’s preferences satisfy the requirement of impersonality if they indicate what social situation they would choose if they did not know their personal position in the new situation […] but rather had an equal chance of obtaining any of the social positions existing in that situation
what does Harsanyi stress the importance of?
the requirement of impersonality: how would I choose if I had
the same chance of being in each of the possible positions involved in a distribution
what distribution method does Harsanyi believe in?
chosen to maximize the average
happiness, no matter how unequal the outcomes are for indviduals. He can be be
classified as a utilitarian.
what are examples of negotiations?
setting a price in an auction
negotiating the movie a group will see
what composes negotiations?
need
-distributive bargaining
-integratative bargaining
what can negotiations do?
resolve and involve conflict in decisions
what happens within distributive bargaining?
there is a large zone of possible agreement and a smaller bargaining zone. it is the process of working out a middle ground or the zero-sum.
what is meant by zero sum?
it is when in a negotiation the outcome is when one party gains the same one party loses, so the sum = 0
what is an example of distributive bargaining?
folding bike, negotiate a price through the negotiation using the reserved price From buyer and seller -zero sum as no profits Made
what is an acronym to negotiate successfully?
B - BARGAIN
A - Alternative
T - TO
N - NEGOTIATIONS
A - agreements
how are reasonable offers made in distributive bargaining?
- making reasonable offers
- splitting the difference
what information is needed to make “reasonable” offers?
own and others position
awareness of perceptual bias
both sides need to be willing to be flexible
what did Loewestein et al 1993 research?
reasonable offers in db
-gave ppts a testimony to read of a motorcyclist and automobile driver crash
-M sues AD
-ppts represent either party
-part one - asked about fair settlements and guess how much awareded
-part two: negotiate settlement
-measured the difference principle
what were the results of Loewestein et al 1993?
those who settle, agreed on a £11,941 in fairness difference
-those who didn’t agreed on a £33,915 difference
what is the definition of integrative negotiations?
is possible when the parties have some shared interests or opportunities to realize mutual gains through trades across multiple issues (Harvard Law School)
how are integrative negotiations solved?
Logrolling -> creating a fall back solution
what are some solutions of integrative negotiations?
where the Pareto optimal meets the Pareto frontier and two processes occur:
-integrative: creating value for both solutions
-distributive: claiming shares
what is an example of negotiations across borders being a difficult subject?
Meyer 2015
-danish exec asks Indonesian manager to meet, agree on a day but fails to turn up
-> explains as in Indonesia: rude to say no to who you respect, choose to decline through tone of voice, hints and body language
-> in one culture yes in the other means no
how can negotiation across borders be improved?
paying attention to:
1. Voicing disagreement - is it voiced or hinted at
2. Emotional expression - does the speaker allow for self expression or do they stay reserved?
what are countries that the uk may have trouble negotiating with due to differences in communication across cultures?
Meyer 2015
Saudi Arabia
Mexico
France
Israel
how did mead 1937 define competition?
the act of seeking or endeavouring to gain what another is endeavouring to gain at the same time
how did mead 1937 define rivalry?
behaviour oriented toward another human being whose worsting was the primary goal and the object or position for which they completed was secondary.
how can competition be eliminated?
either increasing quantity of object or decreasing number of competition
wha is helpfulness?
when the goal shared only through the relationship of the helpers to the individual whose goal it actually is (Mead, 1937)
what is individualistic behaviour?
behaviour in which the individual strives toward his goal without reference to others
what is the interdependence theory proposed by Deutsch 1949?
focus on goals in social situations
-goals can stand in 3 relations to each other
-rely on others to achieve a mutual goal
-lead to cooperative social situations & promote interdependent goals
how do groups in competitive and cooperative situation perceive themselves?
-competitive: congruently interdependent
-cooperative: promotively interdependent
what are groups in competitive and cooperative situations relationships like?
-competitive: negative, info withholding and unconstructuve
-cooperative: positive, share information and constructive & group oriented
how do groups in competitive and cooperative situations perform?
-competitive: larger quantity
-cooperative: higher quality
what did Deutsch 1949 do & find?
studied effects of co-op and competition upon group processes
-found that greater group productivity will result when the members are co-operative rather than competitive in their interrelationships
-indication of competitive producing greater personal insecurity than does cooperation
what did Johnson et al 1981 do and find?
reviewed 122 studies and compared relative effectiveness of cooperation and competition
-results indicate that cooperation is considerably more effective than competition
what are social dilemmas according to Kollock 1998?
are situations in which individual rationality leads to collective rationality
what is the prisoners dilemma?
a dilemma whereby 2 partners in crime are caught
-have to decide whether to testify or stay silent
-consequences of each others behaviour effect the other,
-if one stays silent and the other testifies the one who testifies is free and the other goes to jail, if both speak both jailed for 2 years, if both silent one year each
what is the common pool resource proposed by Hardin 1968?
two options with common pool resources:
-rivalry: I can’t use if you do
-non-excludability: I can’t exclude you from not using it
e.g. deciding which sheep gp into fields, can’t not allow competitions sheep to not go into a field as they are free
when do we cooperate?
goals are inline with ours
when do we compete?
goals are not inline with ours
what happens in pure coordinations games?
if everyone raises the same arm they get £2 and those who raised the other get £1
what happens in anti-coordination games?
if raise RA or LA on count of 3,
if raise right, £2 left £1
what happens in free-rider games?
raise RA and LA on count of 3
-maj left = left £1, right £0
maj right = right £3, left £2
-public goods game, prisoners dilemma
what is a benefit with public goods games?
if one person consumes the good, there is stlll plenty of the good to go around
what is the social interdependence theory by Kelley & Thibault 1978?
when a given situation uses an effective solution as subject transmission occurs
-3 options for ppts: max own, max res, max joint
what is zizzo 2003?
-gave ppts a free rider game
-given money and get a button to decide to burn others money
-found 50% pressed button
what did Aesop (1687) say in his fables?
-nothing is more foolish than envy, though that harm is inflicted upon oneself provided that the other shall suffer
what are the obersvations of the choices made in public goods games?
-max own: chosen by individualists
-max rel: chosen by competitive individuals
-max joint: chosen by prosocial individuals
what did Murphy et al 2011 research and find?
-ppts decide patterns of distribution of money 6 times
-those who are individualistic, more likely to move money to their side
what did Lange 2000 do?
studied a student sample over a period of time
-found as they age ppts shifted to a prosocial orientation
what happens in fishcakes?
-3 player game
-each player can take up to 30% of the fish (10)
-A = 10%(1), B = 20% (2), C = 30% (3)
-points = fish taken
-the remaining fish are multiplied by 3
-then game played for 10 more rounds
-best way to have the most fish at the end, is by not fishing
what are serious games?
ones which have a goal of achieving something
what is the threshold game?
-6 players, 5 rounds, have £50 in two 5 tokens to put in each round, choose to keep or invest in the shared account
-threshold of £150 needs to be met = if not they lose 90% the money put into that account
what did Millinski et al 2008 do and find?
played the threshold game with 10 rounds instead of 5
players had up to 120 euro to invest
the account to invest was called climate account
-found that 50% of the group would not meet the threshold -> leading to 98.5% of loss in investment
-> show that using climate, doesn’t motivate people to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions
what did Kangeisser et al 2024 do?
replicated threshold game with water and for children from Germany and ind
-added relative and individual feedback
-found that kids from Germany after relative feedback would decline in meeting the threshold each round but with individual feedback maintain meeting the threshold
-iindian kids showed similar results
what did Barret et al 2012 do?
replicated the threshold game
but changed that everyone lost the same amount if threshold not meet
had to pledge
four conditions: uncertainty for both, certainty for both, threshold certainty and impact uncertainty, impact certainty and threshold uncertainty
-> found that 20% of certainty, 100% of threshold uncertainty and 80% of both uncertainty had more than 80% chance of catastrophe
what are the pathways to failure?
free riding
dealing with uncertainty
what are the pathways to success?
communication
clear goals
what did chatter et al 2022 reveal?
- I FRAME = policy interventions that seek to fix problems with individual behaviour
-S - frame = addressing the system in which individuals operate
-I FRAME YEILD NEGATIVE RESULTS AND REDUCES SUPPORT FOR EFFECTIVE S FRAME POLICIES
How does complexity allow unethical decisions to be hidden?
- Exxon - funded research discrediting climate science, funded climate science research and constantly changing positions
- Strategies - obfuscation, reasonable doubt and responsibilisation.
what happens in health modelling games?
- before 8 participants are randomly switched from blue to purple
- from first to last round nobody knows anybody’s colour including their own and their are 25 rounds.
- each player choses one action per round either H or G.
- in each round the players are randomly paired
- found that over time purple players earn no bonus and blue players receive bonus money: points/200 in GBP and there is no feedback till after the game!
what were the results of health modelling games?
that after each round the participant pool declines
what are advantages of research with social games?
- Interactivity - pliers behaviour creates the environment for social decisions, capture elements of environmental and social complexity.
- Methodology - incentivised behaviour, can be done deception-free, games can be framed neutrally or thematically.
- Flexibility - games can study behaviour at different levels
what are challenges of research with social games?
- Interpretation - do the games results translate into the real world?
- Practical Difficulties - incentivised group games are costly, power to one group = only one observation!
- games should be as simple as possible but as complex as necessary to learn something about real-world behaviour.
