Developmental psychology ( social learning and sociocultural perspectives) Flashcards
patricias topics!
1
Q
who is a key researcher in sociocultural perspectives?
A
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), gained prominence in the English-Speaking world in 1978 when an English translation of parts of his work was published as “Mind in Society
2
Q
what are some sociocultural perspectives?
A
- social interactions with other skilled people are critical for development
- child and more experienced partners solve problems together, which extends child’s capabilities.
- children interact with the institutions and tools provided by their culture
- Psychological tools and cultural symbols function as mediators to extend cognition.
3
Q
what make mental functions?
A
Elementary mental functions - biological and emerge spontaneously through interaction with the world
4
Q
how does culture effect mental functions?
A
culture provides children with mediators to transform elementary functions into higher level skills
5
Q
what do higher mental functions involve?
A
higher mental function involve coordination, of several cognitive processes and use of mediators (language and counting)
6
Q
what is the zone of proximal development?
A
describes the difference between the actual developmental level (determined by individual problem solving) and the potential development( determined by problem solving under guidance or collaboration with more skilled partners)
7
Q
what is scaffolding?
A
describes an instructional process in which a more skilled partner adjusts the amount and type of support offered to fit with the childs learning needs over the course of the interaction.
8
Q
what did Radziszewska & Rogoff 1988 research & find?
A
-gave an errand planning task to 9-10 year olds like getting flowers form the florist, costumes from supplies store etc.
-found that children in an adult child dyad, explored more and on average planned more than those in child child dyads, but for one step moves child child dyads scored higher
9
Q
what did Chegg & Legare 2017 research?
A
3-6 year olds and their caregiver watched a video demonstration. Had two conditions: instrumental and conventional.
- Instrumental had “I am going to make a necklace, let’s watch what I am doing, I am going to make a necklace”.
-Conventional had “Everyone always does it like this, let’s watch what I am doing, everyone always does it like this”
10
Q
what did Chegg & Legare 2017 find?
A
scaffolding varies with learning
-those in the conventional condition scored higher in parent percentage in all four demonstrations
-but the difference varied in each demonstration
11
Q
what did Leonard et al 2021 research?
A
-4-5 yo children interacted with an experimenter to solve visual puzzles.
-two conditions: teaching condition and taking over condition
- each puzzle done twice
-children were then given a persistence task like opening up their toys without any help
12
Q
what were the results of Leonard et al 2021?
A
-children persist less when adults take over
-children in the teaching condition spent more seconds trying the task than children in the taking over condition
13
Q
what did Michael Tomasello say about human uniqueness in cooperative abilities?
A
that humans are unique in their cooperative abilities, they share intentions with others and it is cumulative cultures.
every child grows up in a particular time, place and culture. culture is what others have/do.
14
Q
who proposed the Ecological Systems Theory?
A
Uri Bronfenbrenner
15
Q
what is the ecological systems theory?
A
it proposes that humans have five systems which build up to an individuals inter racial ID etc.
-they are the chronosystem, macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, microsystem
16
Q
what composes the chronosystem?
A
historical trauma
intergenerational trauma
17
Q
what composes the macrosystem?
A
cultural values
public policy
systemic racism
18
Q
what composes the exosystem?
A
caregivers workplace
school system
neighbours
physical and mental health systems
mass media
19
Q
what composes the mesosystem?
A
crosses over with exosystem, and microsystem
20
Q
what composes the microsystem?
A
teachers
family
peers
mentors
social media
21
Q
who proposed the developmental niche?
A
Harkness & Super 1994
22
Q
what is the developmental niche?
A
- theoretical framework for studying the cultural regulation of the micro-environment of the developing child.
- at the centre of the developmental niche therefore is a particular child of a certain sex and age with certain temperamental and psychological dispositions.
- virtue of characteristics this child will inhabit a different cultural world than the worlds inhabited by other members of his family and further the childs world will also change as the child grows and changes
23
Q
what did Lohaus et al 2014 research?
A
studied Cameroonian Neo farmers and German middle class urban samples, used a Bailey scale to measure gross and fine motor development. tested at 3,6,9 and 40 months.
24
Q
what did Lohaus et al 2014 find?
A
found a difference(Cameroonian children scored higher) in gross motor development in between ages 3-6 months and in fine development found a difference at 40 months (German children scored higher)
25
what did Clegg et al 2017 research?
examined how cultural contexts shape adults’ beliefs about children's intelligence and behavior.
The researchers compared adults from the U.S. and Vanuatu to understand variations in how conformity is associated with perceptions of intelligence and good behavior in children.
-adults viewed videos of 2 children -> child 1 copies w high conformity and 2 copies w low conformity
26
what were the results from Clegg et al 2017?
- U.S. adults were less likely to perceive highly conforming children as intelligent, often valuing creativity instead. In contrast, Ni-Vanuatu adults were more likely to associate conformity with intelligence and good behavior, emphasizing social harmony.
2. U.S. adults consistently prioritized traits like independence and creativity over conformity in their evaluations of intelligence.
3. : The findings highlight cultural differences in parenting values and child-rearing goals.
27
what is classic conditioning?
a basic learning mechanism
28
what did Tarullo et al 2016 do?
observed eyelid conditioning during sleep in newborns and found that in the experimental group there is significantly more eye movement response to tone alone than in the control (increases 0.2 every time whereas control reduced).
29
what is a disadvantage of social learning theory?
an individual can be slow and error-prone, as knowledge and skills can be opaque and thus difficult to acquire through individual learning.
30
what is the social learning theory?
observation & imitation of others behaviours are important to acquire new behaviours
31
what are the steps involved to imitate and observe?
- attend to behaviour
- remember behaviour
- capacity to reproduce behaviour
- motivated to show behaviour
32
is imitation innate?
studied by Meltzoff & Moore 1977 ,Oostenbrock et al 2016 and Davis et al 2021,
33
what did Meltzoff & Moore 1977 research?
studied neonatal imitation and claimed that he neonates are born with the ability to imitate. This allows infants to automatically engage in social interactions and it provides the foundation for later socio-cognitive development (1992-4)
34
what did Oostenbrock et al 2016 do?
challenged neonatal imitate by making gestures to infants like tongue protrusion, mouth opening, happy facial expression and sad facial expression, index finger protrusion, grasping, tube protrusion, and box opening.
->Infants were presented with nine social and two non social models and the responses were scored ar 1,3,6 and 9 weeks of age.
-> They found that imitation does not systematically occur in response to model and behaviour also occurs for control models
35
what did Meltzoff et al 2018 research?
reexamined data of each term and found imitation of tongue protrusion effect.
->found higher scores in all terms within the tongue protrusion effect
36
what did Davis et al 2021 research?
conducted a meta analysis and found a positive effect of neonatal imitation but neonatal imitation is predicted by research lab and there is evidence for publication bias.
37
what are conclusions from neonatal imitation studies?
- only limited number of original gestures replicate consistently
- evidence for lab affiliation bias and publication bias
-propose serious challenge to claim that neonatal imitation is foundational for socio-cognitive development alternative explanations:
a reflex will occur in response to other events
arousal
38
what did Gergely & Kiraly 2002 find in rational imitation?
14 mo olds were given task to switch on a light box after watching an adult renact it
-two conditions: hands free and hands occupied
-more infants were able to do the task within 20 seconds when hands were free (redacted the head action)
39
what did Horner & Whiten 2005 research and find?
-overimitation in children and chimpanzees
two conditions: A/B AND C/D
-the human children copied the insertion of in the top of a hole more even with opaque and clear tools then the chimpanzees
->children imitate useless things when the cause and effect are clear and opaque whereas chimpanzees only copy when the cause and effect are opaque.
40
what is emulation?
emulation is learning from the environmental results of what an agent does.
41
who researched why children imitate?
marsh et al 2013 & Hoehl et al 2019
42
what did marsh et al 2013 do?
children with autism spectrum conditions over imitate less frequently, found after a demonstration of necessary and unnecessary actions “Get the toy as fast you can!”
->those with autism spectrum condition over imitated less than those the same age
43
what did hoehl et al 2019 do?
researched factors of over imitation
-social pressure is the leading factor over wish to comply & affiliate and wish not to comply
-
44
why is imitation important in social learning?
a foundation of learning
-much knowledge relies on testimony, so are young children gullible as they imitate lots of behaviours.
Koenig & Harris 2005, dfound that 4 year olds use labels provided by previously accurate speakers, when methods used are familiarisation and a test.
45
what did Jaswal & Neely 2006 study?
reliability vs age
-found before familirisation more selections of labels when both the child and adult are reliable
-after familarisation a reliable adult shows more selections of labels
->concluded that 3 & 4 year olds prefer reliable adults over a reliable child, but they prefer a reliable child over an unreliable adult.
46
what did Dyanni et al 2015 study?
Dyanni et al 2015 found that Chinese American children follow the consensus more than european American children. consensus being preference for the inefficient tools.
47
conclusions of social learning for children are:
young children make smart choices about who to trust as they trust reliable speakers, adults over children when both reliable but prefer reliable children more than unreliable adults.
48
what is prosocial behaviour?
voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another e.g. sharing.
49
what were the results of Warneken & Tomasello (2006)?
studied 18 month olds found that those in the experimental were more likely to help in tasks
50
why does prosocial behaviour need to be voluntary?
it needs to benefit others and not the person doing the behaviour.
51
what is the range of prosocial motivations?
continuum of other-oriented to egoistic motives, from egoistic, whereby actions are motivated by the ultimate goal of increasing one’s own welfare to sympathy, whereby actions are motivated by the ultimate goal of of increasing another’s welfare.
52
what did Vaish et al, 2009 research?
sympathy & helping in 18-24 month olds
-children watch a series of events happen, there are two conditions: harm and neutral
-in the harm condition: in the event one of the children pop the others balloon
-in neutral the child loses the balloon
-those in the harm condition showed more concern than those in the neutral condition
53
who researched what the terms of children helping are?
Warneken & Tomasello 2008
54
what did Warneken & Tomasello 2008 research?
asked whether children are more likely to help when:
- when you praise them?
- when you reward them?
- when you do nothing?
found that during trials that children in the neutral condition hd a higher mean score of percentages than those in the praise and reward condition
55
what is a common measure of arousal?
pupil dilation
-but changes in lighting
56
what did Hepach et al, 2012 research?
-pupil dilation
infants watched video stimuli through a monitor placed in the window & eye movements were tracked throughout
-three conditions: no help, help and third person help condition
-the video was of adults dropping something and needing help - depending on condition showed whether they were helped or not
57
what were the results of hepach et al 2012?
children showed less arousal (less pupil dilation) after someone is helped
-shows they care about other's welfare and not just taking credit for helping
58
what did callaghan et al 2011, research?
whether early helping behaviour varies across cultures
59
what did callaghan et al 2011, find between cultures?
there is small variation between levels of helping between different cultures (Canada, India and Peru)
-in all groups the experimental condition showed higher levels of helping all throughout
60
what did Rao & Stewart 1999 research?
5 year olds in different cultures (Chinese, Indian and American)
-two children in each with different conditions: child one, 10 preferred & 10 less preferred food items and child 2, 1 preferred and 1 less food item
-measured whether children from the different cultures would share food with the two children
61
what were the results of Rao & Stewart?
children from India scored higher for passive sharing, from America scored higher for elicited sharing and Chinese for spontaneous sharing
62
what did smith et al, 2013 research?
if children share whether they know the recipient or not
-american children
-given task to anonymously share up to four stickers with another child and then afterwards the children were asked what they should've done
63
what are results of smith et al, 2013?
children were less likely to share when they are unaware of the person that is the recipient
64
what did schafer et al 2015 research?
merit based sharing in nambia, Kenya and Germany
65
what was the task in schafer et al 2015?
children in dyads given task to fish cubes out of tubes in unequal merit and non merit conditions
-conditions (unequal merit, equal merit and no merit)
66
what were the results of Schafer et al 2015?
found higher number of German dyads to have a equal merit than Namibia and Kenya in 4-11 year olds
-> showing slight split in cultures attitudes to sharing
67
what did Brownell et al 2016 research?
do children cooperate with peers
-lots of pairs varying between ages 19-27
-children are in pairs, one child each has one side of a toy
-task is to pull both handles and make the toy play music
-> found cooperation with peers increases from 19-27 months of age
68
what did warneken et al 2006 research?
if humans are the only animal to cooperate
-found chimpanzees cooperate but after partner disengages they too disengage
69
define sex
a person’s biological status, indicators are sex chromosomes, internal reproductive organs and external genitalia.
70
define gender
the attitudes, feelings, and behaviours that a given culture associated with being a boy/man or being a girl/woman
71
define gender roles
the pattern of appearance, personality, and behaviour that in a given culture are typically shown by a boy/man or a girl/woman.
72
define gender stereotypes
the beliefs that members of a socio-cultural group hold about how genders should behave.
73
define gender identity
one’s own inherent sense of one’s gender.
74
define sexual orientation
the sex of those to whom one is sexually or romantically attracted.
75
what did Serbin et al, 2001 research?
what toys infants preferred
-infants shown vehicle or dolls and time spent looking was measured
-boys spent more time on average looking at vehicle dolls, spent more time on average looking at dolls
76
what did Todd et al 2018 find?
a meta analyses that focused on toy preferences between the genders
-boys played with more male typed toys than girls and girls played with more female type toys than boys, difference also observed in earlier studies than later studies
77
what did Fast & Olson 2018 find?
three conditions: 5-6 y o transgender children, their siblings and cis gender controls
-proposed the question whether children view their own gender as stable across time?
-found that transgender children view their gender in the future as stable and in the past as unstable, whereas in controls and the siblings both past & future stable
78
what did chambers, 1983 find?
when children are asked to draw a scientist that only girls drew women scientists, which were 28!
-also girls were less likely to associate science with war and more likely to fear accidents in connection with research
79
what did replications of chambers 1983 experiment find?
over time, the percentage of male scientist drawn declined so showing changes in gender roles associated w science (1965-2015)
-girls showing more of an inc to drawing female scientists, boys showing small inc each time
80
what did studies of differences between numerical skills find?
a little difference between the sexes
81
what did Leslie et al, 2015 find about stereotypes towards innate talent across academic disciplines?
higher stereotypes and beliefs of women studying at phd level for social sciences than for STEM subjects
82
what happened in the historical change in computing?
1949 was the emergence of larger amounts of women in the field, who used data and transcribed them into standard engineering units
83
what did Bian et al., 2017 research?
children's endorsement of gender stereotypes
-found that each gender scored their own gender higher than the other for brilliance, as they got older (5-7 yrs)
-found that boys rated their nice ness level lower than girls and girls higher than boys, which was seen as age increased
84
how does Rhodes et al 2019 suggest that girls engagement can be increased?
by making preschoolers watch video of science and having two groups: Be-scientist group and Do Science group.
-> When children played a smell game and persistence after failures was measured, they found that higher overall persistent levels in the girls groups than boys.
85
define race
a socio-cultural construct, racial classifications are inadequate descriptors of the distribution of genetic variation in our species
86
what did shutts et al 2013 research?
two experiments both contained gender and race trials
- 3 year olds
-children where matched with children of different gender and race and were asked if they would play with them
-> found in experiment 1 that children used gender to decide if they would play with them, experiment 2 children used gender to decide who shares preferences with them
87
what did shutts 2015 find?
found that the stages of development of preferences for social groups occur:
- Infants - distinguish gender and ethnicity based on faces
- 3-4 preferences based on gender
- 4-5 preferences based on ethnicity
- 6+ explicit ethnic preferences begin to decline
88
what did Kingzler et al 2009 find about preferences for accents and language?
that children prefer those who have the same accent and speak the same language
89
what are some mechanisms in generic language in shaping children's understanding of social categories?
(Rhodes et al., 2012)
-three conditions: generic labels, specific labels and non specific labels
-children & adults give more essentialist responses after hearing generic language
90
what does social categorisation provide (Rhodes 2012)?
a valuable mechanism for explaining and predicting human behaviour and to the development of social stereotyping & prejudice
91
what is the theoretical perspective proposed by Rhodes 2018?
that children map intuitive theories about the structure of the social world onto categories they encounter in their environment
92
what did Kinzler et al 2010 find about social categorisation?
enables children to encode and retrieve information about people efficiently and provides a valuable mechanism for prediction and explaining human action
93
what is a negative to social categorisation (Bigler & Liben, 2007)?
contributes to range of negative psychological and social phenomena like stereotypes and prejudiced attitudes
94
what do categories reflect? (Murphy & Media, 1985)
domain specific intuitive theories about the structure of the world
e.g. animals can be categorised by colour, size and behaviour reflects abstract beliefs about the structure of the biological world
95
what is intuitive theory 1?
social categories as natural kinds (Hirschfeld 1996)
96
what is intuitive theory 2?
social categories as markers of social obligations
97
what does Hirschfield 1996 propose?
that social categories are natural kinds - that the social world is composed of discrete, coherent kinds determined by nature - guides the development of social categorisation
98
what do children view social category memberships as determined by?
Birth, stable, and predictive of a wide range of physical and behavioural properties like animal species.
99
at what age do children's belief about one social category reflect theoretical commitments?
3-5
100
what do preschoolers see gender as?
1. Marking objective structure
2. established by birth, stable and conferring an innate potential
3.identifying people who are fundamentally similar
101
how do social categories are natural kinds guide development of social categorisation?
For animal categories, children readily map their intuitive theory onto categories in the world.
For example, when children encounter a new animal category, they assume that it is a distinct kind with strict boundaries
102
what does data show that young children do?
apply natural kind beliefs to social categories selectively
-show protracted developmental trajectories & cultural variability
103
what did Hirschfield 1995 demonstrate?
that 4yo understand the physical features associated with race as inherited & stable
-> proposed that children view race as a natural kind but failed to test whether the children treated the markers as informative as distinct kinds of people
104
what did Rhodes & Gilman 2009, find that opposed hirshfields research?
-5 year olds classify people by skin colour, they view race as a subjective, flexible way of categorising people
105
what did Kinzler & Dautel 2012, conclude about children seeing race as a category for natural kinds?
pre school children don't map their theory that some social categories are natural kinds to race
-> rather natural kind beliefs about racial categories develop slowly dependent on children's cultural context
106
what did Kalish & Lawson 2008 research & find?
4 year olds do not expect people who share membership in novel social categories to share preferences
-> showing they don't view categories as marking people as similar to one another
107
what is a critical point for marking social categories as natural kinds?
distinguish between the evidence that children are aware of categories from evidence that they treat those categories as marking natural kinds
-it requires that they view category membership as fundamental to identity -> stable, objective ways of classifying people
108
what did Bigler & Liben 2007 find about children's attitudes?
young children quickly learn novel criteria for classifying people and show sensitivity to such categories in their social attitudes
109
what are the issues behind what determines whether children treat a particular social category as a natural kind?
1. why do young children hold essentialist beliefs about gender but not other social categories
2. what determines how children map these belies to other categories across development
110
what did Cosmides et al 2003 find in relation to the issues of intuitive theory one?
the significance of gender to the processes involved in shaping evolution, concepts of gender may be constrained by intuitive cognitive biases
111
what research contrasts issues of intuitive theory one?
Rhodes & Gelman 2009
-as categories based on race didn't play a role in shaping human evolution they would not be constrained and instead depend on cultural experiences
112
what does empirical studies of int theory one show & suggest?
-empirical support from studies which show that natural kind concepts of gender develop early childhood esp in communities where older children and adults have more flexible gender beliefs
->children's own intuitive biases shape their early concepts
113
what is another proposal for issues proposed by the intuitive theory one?
cultural input plays a crucial role in shaping how children apply natural kind beliefs to particular categories in early childhood and across development
-children exposed to cultural input for gender earlier than other cats like race
114
what research supports the idea that of cultural input shaping how children apply natural kind beliefs?
Rhodes et al 2012, hearing generic language leads 4 yo to develop natural kind beliefs about novel social cats they otherwise would not view in this manner
-parents selectively produce generic language when talking to their children about social categories for which they themselves hold natural kind beliefs
-> generic language is serves as a mechanism that facitiliatates cultural transmission
115
what is a limitation to intuitive theory one?
children hold beliefs about a limited number of social categories - those they hold are important as can be implicated in development of stereotyping & prejudice
(Dweck, 2009)
116
what is used to determine wether intuitive theory 2 is useful?
-social categories contribute to human behaviour do not stem from within category similarity
e.g. social categories contribute to social relationships and interactions, shaping who will be friends, cooperate or compete
117
what did Rhodes 2012 find about children when researching the intuitive theory 2?
that children use social categories to predict patterns of social interactions
-children aged 3 + were introduced to novel categories that were marked by labels & t shirt colours
-at all ages they used the categories to predict social interactions, predicted that agents would refrain from harming members of the agents own category and would direct harmful actions toward members of contrasting categories.
-ages 3-5 didn't use categories to predict nice behaviours but predicted agents that would engage in nice behaviours toward members of their own
118
what does Rhodes work for int theory 2 show?
harming violates social obligations, children predict that agents will refrain from harming people with whom they share cat membership
-but Knobe 2010 found that nice behaviours are not obligated - not supporting predictions about these behaviours
119
what do children's evaluations of harm depend on?
the presence of explicit rules
-suggest they view intrinsic obligations not to harm as stopping at category boundaries
120
how do the two intuitive theories work together?
-support different conceptual role of social categories, they are similar to each other but reflect different inferences
-different levels of input are required to evoke each theory: extensive input required for category as natural kind whereas children infer more readily that new cats mark patterns of social obligations
121
what does Warneken 2018 propose?
new framework of human cooperation about the two problems posed by cooperation - generating and distributing benefits
122
what is meant by warneken 2018 in generating?
children develop foundational skills for identifying and creating opportunities for cooperation with others early
-yet mechanisms that solve the free rider problem emerge later in development & more sensitive to the influence of social norms
123
what is a definition of cooperation?
(Warnken 2018)
humans share valuable resources, assist others who need help and pool their efforts to yield outcomes beyond the capabilities of any one individual
124
what are the psychological capacities dissociated to?
ontogeny & phylogeny
125
what is ontogenetically?
the skills to generate benefit through cooperation arise early in development
-wheareas mechanisms to distribute benefit in a way that safeguards cooperation against defection are acquired later
126
what is the distinction seen phylogenetically?
humans & chimpanzees share the basic abilities to generate benefit but have species unique process to distribute benefit that enable cooperative behaviours are a scale not found in our closest evolutionary relatives
127
how do children learn to generate benefit though cooperation?
-mere payoff perspective, individuals engage in a collective act to create mutualistic benefits -> easier to hunt as group than alone!
-through helping, comforting, sharing resources, collaboration
128
how do children show helping & comforting as an altruistic behaviour?
age 1-2 children comfort those who are in pain or distress
-children are able to help with diverse sets of problems
129
what did Warneken 2017 find in 18 month olds?
able to infer various types of action goals and offer the appropriate instrumental help by picking objects that someone has dropped on the ground, help put away objects by holding doors open.
130
according to Eisenberg et al 2015 what are the different ways children help others?
when children encounter someone in pain, they can comfort the victim, help to repair a broken toy, share their own toy or seek help from others
131
what does hepach et al 2016 suggest?
in conditions like warnekens 2016 study, children know when to help & are able to differentiate between intentional & accidental outcomes and how to help - hand over & pointing to objects that a person needs rather than irrelevant objects
132
what happens when children develop into sophisticated helpers?
require fewer cues to know when and how to act
e.g. babies can respond to over expression of distress through tears,
(Vaish et al 2009) by age 18-24 m children take situational context into account & react appropriately, when situation calls for it showing concern and helping when a victim loses her belongings to a destructive bully even when the victim shows no overt expression to cue emotional distress
133
but do children feel the same sympathy for an adult as they do a child?
Chiarella & Poulin-Dubois 2013
-found when an 18 m sees an adult upset over an event that couldn't have hurt the person they show little sympathy for the "crybaby"
134
how do children show their ability to share resources?
When someone else is in need, 18-month-olds are willing to give up their own resources. For example, toddlers are willing to share food snacks when they have a bowl of crackers and the experimenter's bowl is empty (Brownell et al. 2013, Dunfield & Kuhlmeier 2013, Dunfield et al. 2011, Pettygrove et al. 2013), sacrifice some of their own toys so that a deprived experimenter can play as well (Warneken & Tomasello 2013a), and give up one of their own balloons when an experimenter has lost hers (Vaish et al. 2009)
135
what is a key part of children giving up resources?
cues of the recipient's needs are important, as they are with early helping. For example, children are more likely to share when the recipient provides more explicit behavioral and communicative cues about her desire for a resource. This is particularly true at younger ages. For example, 18-month-olds share toys and food only after the recipient makes her need explicit or even directly asks the child to share, including by palm-up gestures or stating, “I don't have any crackers.” For 24-month-olds, much more subtle cues are sufficient. They typically share before a recipient makes a request and often immediately upon realizing that the other person ended up empty handed (Brownell et al. 2013
136
is children's behaviour altruistically motivated?
there is strong evidence that children's early helping behaviors are altruistically motivated, i.e., aimed at creating a benefit for others rather than a benefit for the self. Children often help spontaneously without solicitation from the recipient or a third party (Warneken 2016)
137
but do children work collaboratively?
yes
For example, one person has to activate a mechanism on one side of an apparatus while the partner simultaneously manipulates the other side of the apparatus to retrieve a reward (Brownell & Carriger 1990)
-from 14-18 children begin to coordinate their actions successfully
138
are children able to represent both roles as interconnected parts of a social activity?
yes
Children quickly learn how to interact in novel situations after very little experience and often only a single demonstration (Warneken et al. 2006). They also engage in role reversal, flexibly switching between two complementary actions, performing whatever role is necessary to successfully engage in the activity (Carpenter et al. 2005; Warneken et al. 2006, 2007)
139
how do children learn to distribute benefit?
-direct reciprocity
-indirect reciprocity
140
what is direct reciprocity composed of?
partner fidelity and choice
(Baumard et al 2013)
Partner fidelity concerns situations where two social partners interact repeatedly and make decisions about how to interact. Partner choice concerns situations in which individuals can, in addition, make choices about with whom to interact. Therefore, partner fidelity and partner choice likely tap into different psychological abilities.
141
what is meant by direct reciprocity?
two individuals exchanging favours by acting in a manner that is contingent on how partner has treated them and can be better off in the long term than if they had not cooperated
142
what is the earliest age that direct reciprocity in partner fidelity has been observed?
3.5-year-olds. Children shared more resources with a partner who had previously shared with them than with a defector who had never shared with them (Warneken & Tomasello 2013a). By contrast, 2.5-year-olds cooperated at the same level with both cooperators and defectors
143
what did House et al 2013 find?
Studies with peers found that it was not until around 5.5 years of age (House et al. 2013a) that children began acting in a manner that is contingent on the choices of a peer partner; in some contexts, this development occurred even later, at 6–8 years of age
144
how do children show direct reciprocity in parent choice?
When children are forced to choose between two potential partners, they prefer to interact with cooperative over uncooperative individuals. In one study, 21-month-olds interacted with a clumsy adult who tried and failed to hand them objects and with an unwilling adult who had teased them with the toy. When both adults then simultaneously reached for the same object, children gave it to the nice rather than the mean adult (Dunfield & Kuhlmeier 2010). Similarly, 3.5-year-olds helped someone who had previously told them where to find a toy over someone who had withheld helpful information (Dunfield et al. 2013)
145
what is meant by indirect reciprocity?
-cooperation that emerges in triads, it is often done to manage reputation and emerges in later in development
146
how does partner choice occur in indirect reciprocity?
One study found that 17- and 22-month-olds helped indiscriminately, but 26-month-olds helped the nice over the mean adult, at least in the first trial (Dahl et al. 2013). Similarly, Vaish et al. (2010) found that 3-year-olds preferentially helped by giving a marble to a cooperative or a neutral adult over an antisocial adult (who had destroyed another person's belongings).
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what did studies which depend on resource distribution as a dependent measure find?
Kenward & Dahl (2011) found that, when 4.5-year-olds were asked to distribute three cookies between a mean and a nice puppet (who had previously helped or hindered a third puppet), they tended to give more to the nice puppet. However, these children also had a strong tendency to try to make things equal: They gave the same amount to both the mean and the nice puppet when there were even numbers of cookies to distribute (see Olson & Spelke 2008 for similar conclusions). Therefore, 4.5-year-olds bias their sharing to cooperative over uncooperative individuals only when forced to do so.
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what is a critical mechanism in sustaining cooperation?
fairness
-large body of work shows that adults use principles such as equality and equity to decide how to distribute resources
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what did Harris et al 2018 conclude about children in cog foundations of learning?
It highlights that even infants possess an understanding of how information is conveyed through gestures and vocalizations
->Infants actively seek information from knowledgeable individuals, provide information to those who are uninformed, and interpret communicative acts from a third-party perspective.
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what happens when children develop?
their reasoning about testimony becomes more sophisticated.
-> detect inaccuracies but also assess the context of the informant's situation.
->Children consider factors such as group membership, personality traits, and consensus among informants when evaluating the reliability of information. When encountering unexpected or counterintuitive testimony, children may revise their prior beliefs but sometimes defer to informants for social reasons.
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what does Miller 1999 say about culture?
can be seen as a subject to evolutionary processes rather than viewing humans as biologically complete hominids who suddenly invented culture
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what did De Vries 1984 study?
-differing perceptions perceptions about children that parents in some cultures hold in comparison with wester researchers beliefs
-researchers applied temperament criteria to infants of Masai parents
a tragic drought occurred and many infants died -> survivors were the difficult parents who demanded more frequent feeding
-> value more assertive characteristics in one culture
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what did Ritchie & Ritchie, 1979 comment on about culture and children?
socialisation is not conducted in terms of the literature on child development but in terms of cultural goals
-want children to grow up to be good in terms own culture
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what did Shwalb et al 2010 do?
-examine how mothers in the USA, Japan, South Korea and Indonesia view children's development in terms of metaphors & images of children
-all saw development under environmental influence rather than genetic and as unique
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what did Burman 1994/2008 do and find?
reviewed developmental psych from a critical perspective
-observed that in mid 19th century, non western people, infants and animals were studied as examples of the primitive mind thus serving the perspective of European imperialists that their own races was superior
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what is a weakness to culture studies?
(Ho et al, 2001)
researchers treat culture as if it is frozen in time and a background variable to be controlled, when it is always occurring & changing
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what is an example of how research treat culture as frozen in time?
Consider the case of parenting in Confucianism has been a strong cultural force for centuries. The effects of the environment on human development are seen as dominant, with people viewed as initially sirnilar, but becorning 'wide apart through practice' (Bai, 2005).
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what does Teo 2013 maintain about indigenous psychology?
maintains that the term 'Indigenous psychology' should not be reserved for minority or less powerful cultures, but refers to the specificities of all psychologies, including that of the USA. He argues that German critical psychol ogy can be understood, in part, as a backlash against US psychology and the Americanization of German psychology after World War II, as weil as being influ enced by the life paths of certain institutions and individuals.
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