Social psychology and individual differences (year one) Flashcards
Give dimensions of the group and give examples for each
Numbers – family, sex Longevity – jury, religion Spatial concentration – flight crew, world leaders Structure – army, crowd of shoppers Purpose – assembly line, teenage gang Autocracy/democracy – army, commune
Give terms and definitions for different types of groups
Common bond groups : close in proximity
Common identity group : psychologically related people
Social aggregate : group of people who don’t think of themselves as a group
define entitativty
the extent to which a group is seen as a distinct, coherent and bounded entity
explain group cohesiveness
Solidarity, team spirit, esprit de corps
Uniformity of conduct and mutual support
May be the ‘essence’ of ‘groupness’
Based on ‘social attraction’ – liking based on shared group membership and the other person’s proto-typicality within the group
Explain group socialization and the stages of being in a group
■ Groups are dynamic over time
■ Members come and go and all leave their impression on the group (and the group on them)
– Investigation : thinking about joining the group, will find out about the group
– Socialisation : taught expectations of the group
– Maintenance – negotiation : maintained as a group member, may be periods of person wanting to change things the group does
– Resocialisation : when a change occurs in a group based on a suggestion/ change to group values (e.g if a person suggests a change and it is adopted, the whole group is resocialised)
– Remembrance : when an individual leaves a lasting effect in a group / group has an effect on the person
Explain norms
■ Shared beliefs about appropriate conduct for group members
■ Usually relate to behaviours, but can also relate to beliefs, values and goals
■ Define group membership and differentiate between groups
■ Co-ordinate group actions towards goals
■ Violation of group norms usually provokes sanctions and potentially ostracism
Explain status within the group and the factors which contribute to high status
■ High status members have:
– Consensual prestige
– Tendency to contribute ideas (obligation and influence)
■ Status = influenced by context
■ Often become institutionalised over time
■ Factors that contribute to high status include: assertiveness, high group orientation, specific status characteristics, diffuse status characteristics (white, male, well educated)
explain marginal group members
- Disliked by group – often more than outgroup members (‘black sheep effect’) – e.g. traitors
- Vilification of marginal members can increase group cohesion
- Ingroup criticism = taken more seriously than outgroup criticism. Marginal members can be important agents of change
Explain the shift from personal identity to social identity
Personal identity - idiosyncratic aspects of self
Social identity
Transcend the personal self
Self-categorisation – ingroups and outgroups
Norms of beliefs, values, behaviour, goals
Prototype – the ideal group member
Dynamic – framed by outgroups
Explain Tajfel’s (1971) minimal groups study
Reduce groups to the minimum then add components until intergroup bias appears Red group or blue group Choose from pairs of numbers – first number is assigned to ingroup, second number to the outgroup. 4:3 = minimise outgroup score 51: 49 = maximise ingroup score 19: 4= maximise intergroup difference 3:5 = outgroup bias 10:10 = fairness
Explain self categorization
Self = Personal identity + numerous social identities that will be salient depending on context and chronic accessibility
We self categorise and then, through a process of depersonalisation, we act in accordance with the group prototype (ideal member)
Identity categories fall into hierarchies. The basis for these hierarchies can change, in turn altering the ordering of the hierarchy
Give some advantages of social identification
1). Self-enhancement = main emphasis of Tajfel’s original formulation
Mixed support from research
Intergroup differentiation tends to heighten self esteem
But low self esteem does not motivate intergroup differentiation
2). Uncertainty reduction = associates self categorisation and social categorisation with general human categorisation processes
Explain the methods and results found in Group Cohesiveness Boyd, Kim, Ensari & Yin (2014)
■ Demonstrate the relationship between motivational climate and cohesion in sports teams
■ Contrasts a task involving climate with an ego involving climate in basketball and football (soccer) teams
■ Task involving climate: An atmosphere of effort and personal improvement, that all team members matter and mistakes are a chance to learn
■ Ego involving climate: Most skillfull players are celebrated, mistakes are socially punished, inter-personal rivalry thrives
■ Researchers found that task involving climate promotes group cohesiveness
Give some group socialisation research examples
■ Lauger (2014) Street Socialization
■ Interviews and observations with gang members or former gang members (in USA). Identifies aspects of a within gang micro-culture with its own norms of conduct
■ Decker, Pyrooz & Moule (2014) – leaving a gang
■ Mixture of surveys and interviews.
■ Results: Leaving a gang occurs in stages. How many stages and how long it takes depends on the level of embeddedness of the individual in the gang
■ Stages include e.g., first doubts, considering alternative lifestyles, turning points (especially concern for family), validation following leaving
Explain the research findings of group Norms: McNeill, Kerr & Mavor (2013)
■ Study on norms of medical students in Australia
■ Medical students suffer from stress, mental distress, drug abuse and burnout
■ These are contributed to by a ‘work hard, play hard’ micro-culture, including norms of working hard, partying hard and being strong (not seeking help)
■ Results: Overall identifying as a medical student had a beneficial effect on well being (probably due to social support)
■ Students who identified strongly with a staying strong norm suffered reduced well being
■ Results for identifying with the ‘partying hard’ norm had mixed findings as partying was still a source of social support
Explain the research findings of Marginal members: Abrams, Palmer & Rutland (2014)
■ Children and their reaction to ‘disloyalty’
■ Tested children between 5 and 12 years old
■ Children responded to either a normative or non normative ingroup member
■ Normative behaviour was going to a fair which was described as fun and was raising money for charity, non normative was wanting to stay at home and not go to the fair
■ Children viewed not wanting to go to the fair as strange
■ Children of 6 years or less were unconcerned by normative deviancy
■ Children of 8 years and older viewed non normative behaviour negatively and expected their friends to feel the same
Explain the realistic conflict theory
■ Sherif
■ Study with 12 year old boys
■ Formed into groups – Eagles and Rattlers, with social norms
■ The groups competed for trophy and prize of medals and pocket knives – mutually exclusive goals
■ Groups attacked each other
■ Researchers promoted peace with co-operative tasks (super-ordinate goals)
Explain the commons dilemma
■ Game – provides excellent control of variables but poor ecological validity
■ Participants are kept separate but told others are playing
■ Each player can graze either one or two cows on common land each turn
■ Player receives a reward for each cow grazed
■ If too many cows are grazed in one turn the common land is destroyed and the game ends
■ E.g., 20 players; each paid £1 for each cow grazed per turn. If 30 or more cows are grazed in a turn the game ends. Maximum of 50 turns are planned
■ If players share a common identity and this is made salient before play the common land is more likely to be maintained
Give some advantages of social identification
■ 1). Self-enhancement = main emphasis of Tajfel’s original formulation
■ Mixed support from research
– Intergroup differentiation tends to heighten self esteem
– But low self esteem does not motivate intergroup differentiation
■ 2). Uncertainty reduction = associates self categorisation and social categorisation with general human categorisation processes
Explain some strategies for improving social identity
■ Social identities are arranged in a status hierarchy – influences their impact on self – esteem
■ Permeable intergroup boundaries lead to individual social mobility
■ Fixed boundaries lead to social creativity or social competition. The choice of which to adopt is dependent on two factors: legitimacy and stability of the social hierarchy
Explain social creativity
■ If hierarchy of groups is viewed as legitimate or stable or both, then either:
■ 1). Seek New dimensions of comparison
■ 2). Redefine the value of existing dimensions
■ 3). Compare with a different outgroup
Explain why social competition occurs
■ If status hierarchy is viewed as illegitimate and unstable then competition occurs in which low status groups seek to change the status hierarchy through political action, collective protest, revolution, war etc.
Give the positive and negative symptoms of psychosis
Positive symptoms (excess of normal function)
Delusions (e.g., paranoid, grandeur)
Hallucinations (auditory and/or visual)
Disorganised thinking/speech
Abnormal motor behaviour
Negative symptoms (reduction of normal function) Apathy Emotional blunting Alogia Social withdrawal Anhedonia
Explain what paranoid delusions are
A person is said to be paranoid if they have a persistent belief that a person or group is attempting to deliberately harm them in some way (Bentall, Corcoran, Howard, Blackwood, & Kinderman, 2001).
- If the belief is detached from reality and evidence, and only held by one person, then it is said to be a delusion.
- To be a paranoid delusion, the belief needs to be inconsistent with a person’s pre-existing belief system and social context
Describe the link between paranoia and social identification
Paranoia
- Lack of trust in people
- Associated with low self-esteem
- Associated with lack of control
- Unusual beliefs resistant to challenge by outsiders
Social identification
- Trust in people
- Associated with high self-esteem
- Associated with increased control
- Unusual beliefs challenged by ingroup members
Explain the social identity factors than can feed into paranoia
- Locus of control
- Self esteem
- Ingroup influence
- Community belonging
Explain the extrinsic and intrinsic values of friendships
Extrinsic value of friendship: • It is good for our wellbeing • It provides social support • It strengthens community and sense of belonging Intrinsic value of friendship: • We have friends because we are human • Because it is nice • Even if there is no extrinsic value, most people have friends
Explain the direct effects hypothesis
Support is beneficial regardless of amount of stress/a lack of social support is detrimental to health even in the absence of stress.
• High levels of social support provide greater sense of belongingness, self-esteem than low levels, thus producing a positive outlook and healthier lifestyles.
• Social support has a physiological route to health by virtue of reduced blood pressure reactivity, thought to arise from positive stress appraisals and emotions.
• Social support effects may be via enhanced endocrine or immune system functions, although there are less consistent findings in this area (Uchino, Cacioppo & Kiecolt-Glaser, 1996).
Explain the buffering hypothesis
Social support protects the person against negative effects of high stress.
• either by influencing the person’s cognitive appraisals of a situation so they perceive their resources as greater to meet threat
• or by modifying the person’s coping response to stressor after it has been appraised as stressful (e.g. they do not cope alone).
Explain reinforcement theories
- ‘ we feel friendly towards those who have treated us well’ (Aristotle)
- when another person is present when something good happens to us, we are likely to be attracted to him or her (Byrne & Clore, 1970)
Explain social exchange and equity theories
- Focus on reward
- Go further, and look at maintenance
- Comparison of current friendships with past and present (exchange; Thibaut & Kelley, 1959)
- Compare our friend’s friendship outcomes (equity: Hatfield & Traupmann, 1981)
Explain cognitive consistency theories
- Balanced relationship
* Triadic – between yourself, the friend, an object (attitudes) (Heider , 1958)
Give some factors in friendship formation maintenance and dissolution
Formation (Fehr, 1996):
• Environmental – proximity: school, residential, workplace
• Individual – exclusion criteria (dislike, disregard); inclusion (physical attractiveness, social skills, responsiveness, shyness, similarity)
• Situational - future interaction, exposure, outcome dependency, availability
• Dyadic – reciprocity of liking, self-disclosure
Maintenance
• After it has started one is still faced with having to make the friendship work (Harré, 1977, p. 341)
• Managing anger and conflict
• Explicit and implicit strategies – self-disclosure, supportiveness rewards
Dissolution
• Deterioration
• Revisiting formation criteria
• Boredom
Give the 5 domains of friendship
- Similarity,
- Reciprocity
- Compatibility
- Structural – proximity, duration
- Role model
Give Matthews 3 styles of friendship
Independents
• Self- reliant, no particular person in friendship biography, do not identify as having friends
• Determined by circumstance
• Discerning
• Specific standards, small group of friends
• Determined by biography
• Acquisitive
• Collected variety of friends, throughout life, whatever situation they find themselves in
• Determined by both circumstance and biography
Describe masculine styles of friendships
Study of over 400 men, collected over a number f years often as student projects (Greif, 2009)
Four categories of male friendships
• Must
• Men they need to see to keep them happy
• Trust
• Men who have been around for a long time
• Rust
• Sounding board friends but less intimate
• Just
• Men they hang out with
Describe findings on masculinity and friendship
Men’s friendships (Nardi, 1992; Riggs, 1997)
• Longstanding but not regular contacts;
• Shared activities;
• Younger men’s friendships from quasi public to private spaces;
• New friends through shared experiences;
• Use proxy indicators of friendship (Bleiszner & de Vries, 2000)
Little research has focused on men who live alone
Describe research on older widowed women’s friendships
Friendship is very important to widowed women
However, friendship changes following widowhood and it distresses widowed women
Widows often feel they are dropped by their married friends
Are they and if so why? Perhaps because:
• Awkwardness of seeing couples or being with couples
• Awkwardness of communication - for example over meal bills
• Requiring more support than can be given, or more support than given previously
• Widows seen as a threat to married women
New friendships formed by being in the same boat
Homophily
Give some reasons for why it is useful to form relationships
- Need to form positive and lasting interpersonal relationships
- Lack of social contact can cause serious long term consequences
- Harlow monkey research
- Self-regulation of social contact, but Individual differences
- Korean and Caucasian Americans (You & Malley-Morrison, 2000). Caucasian Americans reported more intimate friendships and higher expectations
Give some variables associated with loneliness
- Dispositional factors
- Social circumstances
- Social cognitive tendencies
Give research findings on physical attractiveness
- Broad cross-cultural agreement re physical attractiveness
- Attractive people rated more positively (“beauty is good” effect) and attractiveness influences romantic relationships
- Friends tend to be of similar attractiveness (Bleske-Rechek & Lighthall, 2010)
- Range of physical characteristics are important
Explain the finding from Hendrie and Brewer (2012)
- normal, natural teeth were seen as the most attractive teeth
- Wide, yellow teeth rated least attractive
Explain research findings for proximity and similarity
- Proximity allows familiarity, availability, and expectation of continued interaction
- Important consequences for design of housing, workplaces etc
- Implications for both the formation and maintenance of relationships
- Proximity and similarity may be particularly important for elderly men and women living in residential care (Roberts, 2018)
- Co-presence leads to friendship in elderly meeting in Beijing public parks (Richaud, 2018)
- Important outcomes (Costa, Kahn, Roudiez, & Wilson, 2018)
- Assortative mating – background, personality etc
- Increased similarity over time
Give research findings about contextual factors which impact upon friendships
- Killias (2018)
- Iranians (mostly students) living in Malaysia viewed others with suspicion
- Potential friends (from the same cultural background) were perceived to pose a risk of betrayal and political infiltration
- Due to formal and informal monitoring within the apartment complex, they often chose to maintain a distance from those of a similar background
Give research findings on reciprocity
■ We like those that like us and dislike those that do not like us
■ Important individual differences
■ Attachment
■ Self-esteem
■ Situation – gain loss hypothesis
■ We like most those who initially dislike us but then start to like us
■ We dislike most those who initially like us but then become cold or distant
Explain research findings on disclosure
■ Premature disclosures
■ Dishonest disclosures
■ Factual disclosures
■ Failure to notice the information or dismiss the disclosure as unimportant
■ Laurenceau et al., (2005) self disclosure predicts partner responsiveness, which predicts stronger feelings of closeness
■ Disclosure important for the formation of both romantic relationships and friendships (Kudo & Simkin, 2003)
Give research findings on signalling commitment’
- Yamaguchi et al. (2015)
- The pro-relationship acts used to signal commitment to a friend or romantic partner are similar
- Costly commitment signals are more effective than non-costly commitment signals
- Failing to display appropriate signals of commitment (e.g., forgetting a birthday) is more detrimental to romantic relationships than friendships
Explain research findings on shared activities
- In romantic relationships, declining expressions of affection and perceived responsiveness after the first two years (Hudson et al. 2001)
- Aron and Aron (1996) “typical honeymoon then years of blandness pattern”
- Self expansion model – desire to enrich identities, may share perspectives
- Shared activities lead to additional opportunities for understanding each other, disclosure
- Shared activities can lead to relationship satisfaction (Reissman et al. 1993)
Explain research findings on support
- Support provided by a partner is unique and difficult to replace
- Supportive relationships are more satisfied
- Perceived support can be beneficial
- Received support can be beneficial or detrimental
- The partners response to positive events are also important
- Broaden and Build Theory (Frederickson, 2001)
- Experience and expression of positive emotions
• Expands how we attend and respond to events
• Builds resources for maintaining wellbeing
Explain the intimacy process model
- Relationship maintenance - behaviours and strategies to ensure that the relationship will continue
- Maintaining strong relationships, avoiding relationship decline, repairing poor relationships
- Intimacy Process Model (Reis & Patrick, 1996; Reis & Shaver, 1988)
- Framework for understanding daily exchanges and their impact on intimacy
Explain research findings on interpreting information
Information Processing
- The same events may be interpreted very differently, by different people or at different times
- Felmless (1995, 1998, 2001) fatal attraction phenomenon
- Qualities that are initially attractive in a partner become the same qualities that end the relationship
Memory bias
- McFarland and Ross (1987) memories of past feelings are distorted by current feelings about a relationship
- Memory bias allows us to forget information which may threaten our current feelings about the relationship
Explain research findings on long distance relationships
■ May include a range of categories, e.g. college students, military couples, dual career commuter couples
■ LDRs typically report higher levels of dedication, relationship quality, trust, and commitment (e.g. Kelmer, et al. 2013; Jiang & Hancock, 2013)
■ LDRs appear to engage in more adaptive self-disclosures which may promote intimacy (Jiang & Hancock, 2013)
■ Neustaedter and Greenberg (2012) - importance of digital technologies (particularly video chats). Allow people to spend time together over extended periods of time which enhances intimacy. Remaining issues include time zone distances, technical issues
Give research findings on forgiveness
- Various hurts and betrayals e.g. infidelity, breaking promises, divulging information
- Baumeister et al. (1998)
- Intrapersonal level - anger and blame to charity and compassion Interpersonal level - express and demonstrate those feelings
- Intrapersonal change only – silent forgiveness
- Interpersonal change only – hollow forgiveness
- Important factors, minor acts, empathic emotionally stable victim, apologies and expressions of remorse, committed satisfied relationship
Give the prevalence and causes of dissolution
- Relationship dissolution is a common experience (Robak & Weitzman, 1998)
- Issues leading to relationship dissolution may include a partner’s failure to meet expectations (including sexual dissatisfaction), a desire for freedom, love that is not reciprocated
- External challenges include conflicting work patterns, family and friend involvement. Even the time of year influences the likelihood of breakups
Give the 4 factors indicating the end of a relationship
- A new life seems to be the only solution
- Alternative partners are available
- There is an expectation that the relationship will fail
- There is a lack of commitment to a continuing relationship
Give some methods of dissolution
■ The Break Up Strategies Questionnaire (Collins & Gillath, 2012)
■ Avoidance / withdrawal “I avoided scheduling future meetings with my partner whenever possible”
■ Positive tone / self-blame “I tried to convince my partner that the break up was in both our interests”
■ Open confrontation “I openly expressed to my partner my desire to breakup”
■ Cost escalation “I became unpleasant to my partner in the hopes that s/he would make the first move”
■ Manipulation “I promoted new relationships for my partner to make the breakup easier”
■ Distant / mediated communication “I terminated the relationship indirectly (through email, text-messaging, or other unidirectional methods of communication)”
■ De-escalation “I procrastinated in saying or doing anything in the hopes that things would improve”
Give some of the factors than predict a break up strategy
Women high on Machiavellianism are more likely to use,
- avoidance / withdrawal
- cost escalation
- manipulation
- distant / mediated communication (Brewer & Abell, 2016)
Explain the stages of duck’s relationship dissolution model
- Intrapsychic Phase
- Dyadic Phase
- Social Phase
- Grave-dressing Phase
Explain research findings on consequences and distress
■ Those initiating the breakup report lower levels of distress after the break up (Sprecher, et al. 1998), but both typically report distress (Akert, 1998)
■ The termination of a relationship has important consequences for physical and mental health (Davis, et al. 2003)
■ Distress following breakup is associated with commitment, satisfaction, having few perceived alternatives (Sprecher, et al. 1998)
■ McCall and Johnson (2015)
■ Association between relationship quality and psychopathology (e.g., depression) consistent across cultures, but…
■ Yip, et al. (2015)
■ Divorced people from Asian countries have a higher suicide rate than divorced people from non-Asian countries
■ Risk of suicide was associated with the individualism-collectivism, long-term orientation, survival / self-expression, and gender inequality score of the country
■ McNamee and Smyth (2018)
■ Following divorce, parents of Caucasian women are more likely to encourage moving on whereas parents of Latina women are more likely to discourage it and view the first marriage as sacred
Describe griffin’s (2017) findings about reasons for staying friends with an ex
Griffith et al. (2017)
Reasons for staying friends with an ex:
Security (e.g., not wanting to lose the emotional support)
Practical (e.g., shared possessions)
Civility (e.g., avoiding confrontation)
Unresolved Romantic Issues (e.g., romantic feelings for the person)
Staying friends due to security or practical issues resulted in positive outcomes
Staying friends due to unresolved romantic issues led to negative outcomes
Friendships based on practicality or civility were less likely to last long-term
Define social cognition
How we respond to another person is influenced by the ‘primacy effect’ – we put more weight on the first information about them which we receive (Asch, 1946)
Give research findings for the halo effect
- A person’s appearance is often the first information about them which we receive
- We assume that physically attractive people are good (both more skilled and morally superior) (Dion, Berscheid & Walster, 1972)
- Taller men receive higher starting salaries than shorter men (Knapp, 1978)
Define schema
‘A schema is a set of inter-related cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, attitudes) that allow us quickly to make sense of a person, situation, event or place on the basis of limited information. Certain cues activate a schema. The schema then ‘fills in’ missing details’ (Hogg and Vaughan, 2008, p 49).
Give the types of schemas
Scripts – e.g. how to behave in a restaurant
Self schemas – e.g. actual self, ideal self and ought self
Person schemas: schematic impression of a specific person – e.g. our best friend or a famous celebrity
Role schemas: e.g. a lecturer or a pilot – an impression of how they should behave
Explain the role of stereotypes
- If our person schema or role schema is based on widely held social assumptions about that person or role, due to their group identity, we are using a stereotype
- Stereotypes can be true or false, but even if true they tend to be generalised and sweeping
- At their best they allow us to function swiftly and effectively in a complex social world
- We struggle to process information which contrasts with the stereotype we hold about a person - the intelligent boxer, the shy celebrity. Incongruous information is often ignored or forgotten (Haire & Grune, 1950)
Discuss the effects of prejudice
- Social Stigma – developed with negative stereotypes
- Devaluation of a social identity
- Can be visible (obesity) or hidden (AIDS sufferer)
- Increased prejudice against ‘controllable’ stigma
- Allows for downward comparisons (perhaps for a number of groups), which may boost self esteem
- Justifies unjust power systems
- Defends the ‘worldview’
- Evolutionary basis – avoid poor social exchange partners who would limit our access to resources
Explain the effects of self fulfilling prophecies
- Snowball effect
- Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968)
- Reacting a certain way towards someone may cause them to change THEIR behaviour towards you, which then effects you
- Eden (1990)
- Good evidence for gender, less good for race and poor for socio-economic status - review by Jussim & Fleming (1996)
Explain attributional ambiguity
- Overt discrimination replaced by subtle discrimination – requiring implicit measures
- Contrast between hostile and benevolent sexism
- Attempts to redress discrimination – tokenism and reverse/positive discrimination
- Aversive racism – anxiety and apathy (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2008; Trawalter et al, 2009)
- All leads to attributional ambiguity – suspicion and mistrust in relationships
Give explanations for prejudice
- Inherent fear of the unfamiliar – as omnivores we are neophilic and neophobic
- Mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968)
- Learned
- Barrett & Short (1992): 5 – 10 year old children prefer Spaniards to Germans
- Parental prejudices passed on through: modelling, operant conditioning, classical conditioning
Explain research findings into sexism
Stereotypes of the sexes tend to fall into subtypes (Deaux & LaFrance, 1998, Fiske, 1998)
Women: housewife, sexy woman, career woman, feminist/athlete/lesbian
Men, businessman, macho-man
Both males and females view women as more homogenous (Lorenzi-Cioldi, Eagly & Stewart, 1995)
Three arguments are presented in a highly politicised debate:
Men and women are fundamentally and biologically different and so tend towards different roles (evolutionary explanation)
Male and female roles in society have been shaped by cultural forces – as these cultural forces changed so did the roles of men and women
Male and female roles are socially constructed. These roles have been constructed to favour men as men had the power in society
Explain theories on the evolution of the sexes
- Evolutionary explanations contend that tendencies selected for on the savannah of Africa, among hunter gatherer societies, hundreds of thousands of years ago are still apparent in human behaviour today
- Most of the evolutionary pressures on males and females were the same – find food, stay within the group, find sexual partners, stay away from danger
- However, sex has different consequences for males and females: males - no consequence, females – pregnancy
- Pregnancy is dangerous in such a setting – need for more food, loss of mobility, dangers of giving birth
- Females seek a loyal food gathering male to support her during pregnancy. This has evolutionary advantage for males also – a child with two supporting parents is more likely to survive
- Therefore roles of male food gatherer (breadwinner) and female carer are based in evolution – biological essentialism
Explain the cultural-historical explanation of sexism
■ Men and women traditionally occupied different roles in society for a number of historical reasons:
– Value of children due to lack of welfare system
– Only women could feed babies
– Many jobs required physical strength (agricultural societies)
– Impact of menstruation
■ These practical and social pressures built a culture of male breadwinner and female carer
■ Welfare societies (state pension), bottle feeding, more information based (not strength based) work, contraception, menstrual hygiene products
■ In western societies WWII factory work by women did much to undermine taboos about working women
Explain ‘woman’ as a social construction
■ Simone de Beauvoir “The Second Sex”.
■ ‘Femininity’ is a social construction of the quintessential other
■ Women are the second sex – defined in relation to men due to male power
■ E.g., femininity = use of make-up, removal of body hair, dieting and skinny body shape
■ And through behaviour – lack of education, female passivity, dependence on men
■ Femininity was culturally defined by men so that women became a foil before which men appeared active, capable, necessary and strong
■ Women were also presented (by society) as overly emotional; expressions of women’s anger or pain was dismissed as hysteria
Explain the findings of moss-racusin et al
- Participants = 127 members of science faculties (biology, chemistry & physics) from a range of Universities across the USA
- Believed they were evaluating a real student who wished to pursue a career in science
- Received the student’s CV; only the sex of the applicant was varied
- Participants rated the student’s perceived competence, their own likelihood of hiring the student, an annual starting salary they would offer, how much mentoring they would provide to the student
- Both male and female faculty members viewed the female student as being less, competent, were less likely to hire them, would start them on a lower starting salary and would give them less mentoring
Explain findings of recent psychology studies into racism
- Black students are more likely to be expelled from school than white students because white students are perceived as being more compliant (Okonofua et al, 2016)
- White home-owners are perceived as cleaner and more responsible than black homeowners leading to disparities in perceived property value (Bonam et al, 2016)
- Archival review of police shootings (1980 – 2000) controlled for criminal activity of the suspect and found black suspects were still disproportionately more likely to be shot than white suspects
Give real world examples of racism research
Attempts to demonstrate racism in real world settings can be made difficult by the messiness of real life – multiple variables make clear explanations harder
Healthcare is a relatively simple context in which to examine bias. After controlling for relevant variables (e.g. obesity, age) all patients should receive the same care and treatment
BAME patients are less likely to receive appropriate cardiac medications, undergo bypass surgery, receive kidney dialysis and kidney transplants and are more likely to receive undesirable procedures such as lower limb amputation for diabetes (US Institute of Medicine Report, 2002)
Explain the findings of Hoffman, trawalter, axt and oliver
Black Americans are less likely to be prescribed pain medication when reporting pain to a doctor (e.g., Smedley, Stith & Nelson, 2013)
Study 1: 121 ps reported the amount of pain they would feel if an event occurred (e.g., caught hand in car door). Then speculated on level of pain felt by a target.
Ps rated black target as experiencing less pain than white target
This effect was enhanced by belief in false aspects of biology (e.g., Black people have thicker skin than white people). P’s endorsed 22.5% of the false beliefs
Study 2: 222 medical students read mock medical statements and made pain ratings for the mock patients. The medical students endorsed 11.5% of the false beliefs. P’s who endorsed false beliefs rated black targets as feeling less pain than white targets
Explain the frustration aggression theory
Dollard et al (1939)
Frustration is lessened by achievement of goals or aggression
Hovland and Sears (1940) found a negative correlation between price of cotton and number of murders by lynching in southern U.S.
Miller and Bugelski (1948): Summer camp study. Participants denied a night out showed increased bias against minority groups
Explain the weaknesses of the frustration aggression theory
Frustration does not necessarily result in aggression
Aggression can occur in the absence of frustration
Does not explain why some frustrated groups in the same historical and social context are aggressive and others are not
Generally viewed as overly simplistic and passive
Explain the authoritarian personality
Adorno et al (1950)
Arose from consideration of Holocaust
Proposes that harsh parenting leads to ambivalence towards parents (love/hate) leading to authoritarian personality
Excessive respect for authority, obsession with status, displaces anger onto weaker others, intolerance of uncertainty, difficulties with intimacy
Lots of research but mixed evidence
Explain right wing authoritarianism
- Altemeyer (1998)
- Attitudes rather than personality
- Measured with RWA scale
- Conventionalism, authoritarian aggression, authoritarian submission
- May vary with context (Stenner, 2009)
Explain social dominance theory
Social Dominance Orientation = acceptance of myths which justify unequal status quo (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999)
People at the top defend the status quo
System Justification theory (Jost & Van der Torn, 2012)
Defence of status quo so as to avoid uncertainly anxiety
Even if this results in personal inferiority
Relates to internalised racism (David et al, 2019)
Explain the social identity explanation for racism
We categorise ourselves and others
We seek positive differentiation so as to enhance our self esteem
Patterns of bias become established as defining norms
Hierarchies of identities are formed
Describe research on type A personalities (Matthews, 1982)
Overactive, very competitive
Aggressive to competitors (Carver & Glass, 1978)
More prone to abuse children (Strube et al., 1984)
Managers who are type A, more in conflict with peers and those who work under them (Baron, 1989)
Describe how alcohol effects the brain
Effects cortical control (where thinking and other cognitive functions are carried out, balance, judgement and increases activity in other, more primitive areas - e.g. areas that affect breathing, heartbeat)
Describe the link between alcohol and aggression
Link between alcohol and aggression (e.g Bartholow et al., 2003)
People who drink more can be more aggressive (Bailey & Taylor, 1991)
People who don’t usually consume alcohol are more aggressive when they do (LaPlace et al., 1994)
Define disinhibition
A reduction in social rules that stop us from behaving antisocially or in an immoral or illegal way (aggressively)
Give Suler’s factors for disinhibition online
Dissociative anonymity Invisibility Asynchronicity Solipsistic introjection Dissociative imagination Minimisation of authority
Define asynchronicity in the terms of online aggression
- Words online are not seen immediately after they are posted, so there may be a delay before a target reads a message and responds
- Hit and run aggression
Define solipsistic introjection
Feel like you know people who are online
Make up conversations with them, feel like you can tell them anything
Explain dissociative imagination in terms of online aggression
- Online feels like a fantasy role, so people will behave in certain ways as they feel like it is a game
Define and explain deindividuation
Situational changes that make people lose their identity and therefore influence the level of aggression exhibited
Lower risk of being punished
Presence of others (other people won’t see me do it)
Anonymity (they won’t know who it was)
Diffusion of responsibility (I’m not responsible)
Group size (greater the group, the greater the DoR)
Collective aggression such as crowd baiting
Describe the findings of the st pauls riots
St Paul’s Riots, 1980, London
Violence against individuals and property
Police and camera operators were only intentional targets
21 police vehicles damaged
Private vehicles damaged – suspected unmarked police vehicles and person associated with police
Violence was limited to 2 roads and streets backing off them
Damage to property was limited to accidentally broken windows
Crowd acts according to group norms
Explain urban environment findings
Population density can be linked to crime rate
Household density & neighbourhood density correlated with feelings of aggression and withdrawal from stranger interactions
Define dehumanisation
- Thinking of another person as anonymous, without thoughts feelings or emotions and then this being a justification for violence.
- Torture and abuse in Abu Ghraib prison outside of Baghdad, Iraq.
Explain the role of temperature in aggression
Maes et al. (1994)
■ Belgium – archive data
■ Significant correlation between ambient temperature and violent suicide
■ Relates to annual rhythm – May 15th peak for violent suicides
Kenrick & Mac Farlane (1986)
■ Arizona, USA
■ Consecutive Saturdays April to August
■ Car remained stationary for 12 seconds while green light indicated ‘go’
■ Counted number of horn honks
■ Honking was significantly related to temperature
Explain Dollard’s frustration-aggression theory
Theory of contextual influence seeking to address lynching murders in Southern USA in 1930s
Frustration leads to aggression
Both goal completion and aggression are cathartic
Too limited
Define social learning theory
Learning by direct experience – operant conditioning
Learning by vicarious experience – modelling and imitation
Bobo doll study (Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1963).
Explain research findings on computer games and aggression
Netherlands
10 – 14 year olds
No relationship between computer playing and aggression.
Correlation with intelligence (r = 0.09)
Significant negative correlation with pro-social behaviour (game players less likely to be helpful) r = - 0.12
Explain cooperation and competition in peaceful societies
25 societies examined
■ Almost completely without violence – either inter-personal or inter-group
Chewong – Malay peninsula. No words for quarrelling, fighting, aggression, warfare
Ifaluk – Micronesia. In 12 months one tiny act of aggression
Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites – USA & Canada. Hutterites never a recorded murder
Kadar – India. Crime totally absent according to local police
Jains – India – habitual criminality unknown. Competitive and join military.
Explain bonta’s themes in peaceful societies
Co-operation and group success rather than individual competition and achievement
Humility, modesty
Cherished to age 3, then ignored
Positive interpersonal relations must be constantly re-enforced
Competition is associated with aggressiveness and violence
Self perpetuating – non violence leads to non violence
Re-enforced by rituals emphasising co-operation and individual humility
1997 study
Explain how culture influences aggression
Culture influences how we: name, frame, and try to tame conflict
What we see as threatening?
Different actions, peoples’ motivations
Who is threatening?
People that threaten you or your group (in-groups / outgroups)
Why is it threatening?
Physical threat, threat to status
How to respond?
Retaliation, punishment or resolution
Explain honour systems
- The South of the USA has more homicides than North
- Particularly in males
- Particularly amongst people who know each other
- One possible reason is cultural response to threats against social status ‘honour’
- Minor conflicts can escalate very quickly
Explain research findings on honour systems
Cohen et al (1996) ran a study whereby participants needed to walk down a narrow hallway
A confederate bumped in to them (they didn’t know they were part of the study)
Participants from the North were less likely to believe they had been threatened
Had lower testosterone levels afterwards (biological response)
People from the South were less likely to yield to a subsequent confederate
Explain cohen and nisbett (1997) research findings of honour systems
Cohen and Nisbett (1997) sent letters to potential employers with two different stories
Story 1: to half the employers, the applicant reported that he had impulsively killed a man who had been having an affair with his fiancée and then taunted him about it in a crowded bar
Story 2: to the other half, the applicant reported that he had stolen a car because he needed the money to pay off debts.
Employers in the South were more likely to respond in an understanding manner to the first story (killing someone out of honour) than people in the North
Both sets of employers responded negatively to the car theft story as not related to honour
Explain why honour systems exist in America
1) Historical issues with levels of policing
• There was little law enforcement in the south, so it was necessary to rely on reputation and honour
2) Origins of settlers in these regions
• People in the north were farmers
• People in the south were cattle herders
Give Hosftede’s cultural values (1980,2001)
Individualism / collectivism Uncertainty avoidance Power distance Masculinity/ Femininity
Give factors of collectivist and individualist cultures
collectivist
Interdependent construal of self
Attend to others
Rely on others and they rely on you
Make less of a distinction between individual and group goals
Obeys ‘in-group’ authority
Distrust out-groups
An individualist
Independent construal of self
Assert the self
Exchange relationships
Promoting own achievements and initiatives
Links between members of society are weaker
People want to stand out. Being ‘ordinary’ seen as negative
Explain fujihara’s findings of justifiable behaviour
Fujihara et al (1999) asked students from Japan, Spain and the USA about past aggressive behaviours
Identified 3 types:
– Indirect verbal aggression (being sarcastic and hindering)
– Direct verbal aggression (shouting and rage)
– Physical aggression (punching, kicking)
• Indirect aggression seen as acceptable in individualistic cultures
• Direct verbal aggression seen as more justifiable in collectivist cultures
• Physical aggression seen as more acceptable in individualistic cultures
• Physical aggression seen as acceptable in collectivist cultures if defending yourself
Explain how aggression has developed in cultures
- Individualistic cultures focused on personal desires
- Self-assertiveness important
- Need to look after yourself
- Many collectivist societies focused on Confucianism
- Emphasises importance of social harmony, avoidance of conflict and obligation to others
- Aggression viewed as shameful and socially damaging
- Self-assertiveness seen as selfish and antisocial
Define in groups and out groups
In-groups
When a person psychologically identifies being a member (e.g., by interests, gender, occupation, age)
Out-groups
When a person does not psychologically identify being a member (e.g., by interests, gender, occupation, age)
