Research methods and statistics 4 (year two) Flashcards

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1
Q

give the types of thematic analysis

A
  • Thematic analysis
  • IPA
  • Grounded theory
  • Narrative analysis, conversation analysis
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2
Q

describe what thematic analysis is

A

What?
• Searching through data to identify any recurrent patterns.
• A theme is a cluster of linked categories conveying similar meanings and usually emerge through the inductive analytic process which characterises the qualitative paradigm
When?
• TA is a method that is
“essentially independent of theory and epistemology and can be applied across a range of theoretical and epistemological approaches” (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
• Different forms of analysis are not mutually exclusive – you can combine different approaches to fit your research question.

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3
Q

Give Braun and Clarke’s stages of thematic analysis

A
  1. Transcribe and immerse yourself in the data - familiarise
  2. Develop initial codes - generate
  3. Searching for themes - organise
  4. Review themes – re-read, check and amend
  5. Define and name themes – finalise
  6. Write the report
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4
Q

describe the familiarism stage

A
  • Start by reading your data a number of times (at least two!)
  • Active reading – make notes on your initial thoughts, what is interesting in the data, are there any repetitions?
  • Keep notes as these will act as the foundation for the next stage of analysis
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5
Q

describe the coding stage

A
  1. Work your way through the data in a systematic way - code areas that come up a lot or common language used
  2. Apply label (code using key word/or phrase - you can do this by hand or using word/NVivo - Code areas that come up a lot or common language used and look for important parts of the transcripts which look at particular topics
  3. Review coding as you go
  4. You can do this on a selection of transcripts to generate a coding framework (20-30%)
    • You can code a segment of text to multiple codes
    • Code generously in relation to your research question
    • CODE INCLUSIVELY – remember to keep some surrounding data for context
    • MEMOS – build on your initial note-taking and start to write memos to document and increase the transparency of your analysis.
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6
Q

describe the creating themes stage of thematic analysis

A
  1. Review and consolidate - Review and consolidate codes into broader categories (i.e., themes)
    • Are there any duplicates?
    • Can any codes be amalgamated into higher order codes (emotion example from video)
  2. Generate - Generate broader categories and sub-categories (themes) - use mind maps, post-it notes etc
  3. Keep writing memos
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7
Q

describee the reviewing themes stage of thematic analysis

A
  1. Re-read individual themes and allocated data - Go back to the data and check that all extracts fit into that theme
  2. If extracts don’t fit into the theme? - Go back to the stage before stage 4, re-think, and re-categorise as necessary (you don’t want a red sock in a theme called ‘white washing’ – it will turn everything pink and skew the theme’s meaning)
  3. Review themes in relation to data set. - Do they reflect the meaning as a whole? You don’t want themes about types of washing if most of the dataset is about football!)
  4. If themes don’t reflect the meaning as a whole? - Go back the previous stage, re-think and amend the themes
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8
Q

describe the defining themes and write up stage of thematic analysis

A
  • When your thematic framework is finished, critically consider what each theme is really about and decide on a final name for themes - Remember to interpret and explain and not just describe!
  • Write a detailed analysis of each theme -
  • What is happening in the data in relation to this theme?
  • How can you explain this?
  • Use sub-themes to give your analysis structure and clarity
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9
Q

what is grounded theory?

A
  • Most widely used way of analysing qualitative data
  • Offers a flexible set of inductive guidelines for collecting and analysing qualitative data
  • Involves creating codes by defining what you see in the data, not according to preconceived ideas – codes “grounded” in the data
  • Involves forming a theory based on the collected data as opposed to collecting data after forming a theory (i.e. as in quant research).
  • Ultimate aim of grounded theory is to generate a theory appropriate to the data and justifiable by close examination of the data
  • Lots of variation depending on theoretical stance: Glaser & Straus (1967), Strauss (1987), Charmaz (2003).
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10
Q

give some of the key characteristics of grounded theory

A
  • Systematic – The process by which theory is generated is through the careful application of the general principles and methods of grounded theory
  • Guidelines: GT is essentially a set of guidelines which guide data collection, analysis, and theory generation
  • Inductive NOT deductive – focus on generating theories rather than confirming them
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11
Q

describe the origins of grounded theory

A

• The discovery of grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
• Closing the gap between theory and empirical research
• To provide a sound basis for thorough qualitative research
• They eventually split in the 1990s and developed divergent schools of thought
“Glaserian” and “Straussian” versions of grounded theory
• Then Charmaz too (but we wont delve that far)
• Consequence: confusion around exactly what grounded theory procedures and terms are in the literature!
• We use “Straussian” grounded theory in the Department of Psychology

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12
Q

Describe the differences between Glaser vs Strauss

A
Glaser
• Starts with a completely empty mind
• Has a less structured coding process
• Researcher is passive
• Anything can be used as data – even quant!
Strauss 
• Has a general idea of where to start
• Has a more structured coding process
• Researcher is active
• Only traditionally qualitative data
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13
Q

describe when to use grounded theory

A
  • When you want to generate a theory
  • Understanding of social processes, experiences of a phenomenon
  • When there is little or no existing research available on a topic
  • Exploratory, generates ideas for further research
  • Can be used with any type of qualitative data: media content, conversations, focus groups, biographical data etc..
  • Particularly well suited to interview data
  • Need to decide on a grounded theory analysis before data collection starts due to the sampling methods involved
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14
Q

Give some of the key features of grounded theory

A
  • Theoretical sensitivity
  • Theoretical sampling
  • Constant comparison
  • Data saturation
  • Memo-writing
  • Stages of coding
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15
Q

describe theoretical sensitivity

A

• Step 1: enter the research with as few predetermined ideas as possible
• Literature review not carried out until after analysis
• Prevents extensive reading
• Researcher not totally naïve – already has ‘sensitising concepts’
• Step 2: The ability to generate concepts from data and relate them meaningfully
• Immersion: See from the respondents point of view
• Questioning: Who, when, what, where, how much, why?
• Researcher needs to be aware of implicit meanings of the data
• Theoretical sensitivity is creative, insightful, conceptual

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16
Q

Describe theoretical sampling

A
  • Unique to grounded theory
  • Also known as purposive sampling
  • The process of selecting “incidents, slices of life, time periods, or people on the basis of their potential manifestation or representation of important theoretical constructs” (Patton, 2001, p. 238).
  • Simultaneous data collection & analysis
  • Start with an initial (a priori) sample
  • Generally quite broad inclusion criteria
  • Further cases included on the basis of their usefulness in generating theory
17
Q

Describe and explain data saturation

A
  • Theoretical saturation of data means that researchers reach a point in their analysis of data that theoretical sampling of more data will not lead to new information related to their research questions.
  • No additional data can be found to generate new relationships and concepts
  • Researchers see the same codes, categories, and themes in their data over and over again
  • Empirically confident that data is saturated
  • Guest, Bunce & Johnson (2012) – “Twelve interviews is enough”
18
Q

Describe and explain memo writing

A
  • Cannot be over-emphasised!
  • Writing memos throughout analysis:
  • Reflective memos during data collection
  • Guide theoretical sampling
  • Coding & theory generation
  • Start as soon as you have interesting ideas
  • Object is to increase theoretical sensitivity
  • They evolve – need to come back to them as analysis progresses
  • Should be conceptual and not descriptive
  • Strauss & Corbin (1998):
  • Vary in length & detail
  • At the start ‘awkward and simple’
  • Individual styles
  • Force you to work with concepts, not data
  • Force reflection & coherence
  • Necessary at end of any analytic session
  • Can be written from other memos, not just raw data
19
Q

Give the stages of coding

A
  • Open coding (codes)
  • Axial coding (categories)
  • Selective coding (themes)
  • Theory formation
  • Literature review
20
Q

Describe and explain open coding

A
  • Line-by-line (per transcript)
  • Name each line of data
  • Varied and numerous
  • Quick, generative – can produce 100s of codes
  • Most lines in the transcript should generate an open code but if there are a few blank that’s ok
  • Each code should be one or two words (no more than three)
  • If more than 1 words, the words should be linked (usually an adjective and noun)
  • Try to use words which the respondent uses.
  • Gives you leads to pursue
  • Start memo writing at this stage; open codes….
21
Q

Describe and explain axial coding

A
  • Creation of higher-order codes (“conceptual categories”) from open codes (per transcript)
  • Only those that reflect data most accurately.
  • Looking for:
  • Relationships between categories
  • Properties of categories
  • Action-oriented
  • Form categories by:
  • Bunch frequent, similar codes into a single category.
  • Can form a category based on 2 frequent, opposing codes (e.g. safe/fearful or anxious/relieved)
  • Still memo-writing
  • Look for quotes to support your categories (in the appendix)
22
Q

describe and explain selective coding

A
  • “The process of integrating and refining categories” (Strauss & Corbin)
  • Now looking across all transcripts
  • Form 4-5 themes based on axial categories
  • All themes should be made up of categories which appear in at least two of the interviews.
  • Bunch frequent, similar categories into a single theme
  • Only those that reflect data most accurately.
  • Now a lot more abstract & generalised
  • Look for quotes to support these themes (to go in your results)
  • Reflexive: Return to open and axial codes
  • Start of theory formation
23
Q

Describe the process of selecting a core theme

A
  • Characteristics of a core theme:
  • It’s central!
  • Frequent appearance in data
  • Abstract
  • Can explain variation in the data
  • How to choose the core theme?
  • Reviewing earlier stages of coding
  • Reviewing memos
  • The focal part of an emerging storyline
  • You generally just know by this point.
  • But avoid circularity!
24
Q

Describe the process of generating a core theme

A
  • Generating relationships between the themes and both the core theme and each other - interrelationships
  • Writing a storyline
  • Moving from description to conceptualisation
  • Diagramming (very common, my fave, goes in your appendix)
  • Reviewing coding and memos
  • Essentially, the product of this is the grounded theory
  • Structure of the theory should emerge naturally from the themes in the analysis
  • Does it answer the initial research question/s?
  • Theory must be explanatory, not descriptive…
  • No two grounded theories will look the same
25
Q

Describe the process of selecting codes

A
  • Let the respondents voice be heard
  • Select either “typical” or “poignant” quotes
  • Typical quotes highlight the essence of a theme or inter-relationship
  • “e.g. theme of support – “she helps me emotionally and practically”
  • Poignant quotes highlight the extent of the theme or inter-relationship – should be emotive
  • E.g. “without her help I would have died”
  • Quotes should be:
  • evocative, thought provoking, emotive, attention grabbing, add to the story, explain the story
26
Q

describe the process of contextualising quotes in the writeup

A
  • Quotes can’t stand by themselves in isolation
  • Need to be illustrative of research findings
  • When reporting quotes:
  • Say what the finding is
  • Introduce the quote by saying who said it and in what context
  • Provide the quote
  • Comment on the quote by comparing it to other quotes from the same person, other quotes from different people on the same topic, etc.