Research methods and statistics 4 (year two)

Question 1

give the types of thematic analysis

Answer 1

• Thematic analysis
• IPA
• Grounded theory
• Narrative analysis, conversation analysis

Question 2

describe what thematic analysis is

Answer 2

What?
• Searching through data to identify any recurrent patterns.
• A theme is a cluster of linked categories conveying similar meanings and usually emerge through the inductive analytic process which characterises the qualitative paradigm
When?
• TA is a method that is
“essentially independent of theory and epistemology and can be applied across a range of theoretical and epistemological approaches” (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
• Different forms of analysis are not mutually exclusive – you can combine different approaches to fit your research question.

Question 3

Give Braun and Clarke’s stages of thematic analysis

Answer 3

1. Transcribe and immerse yourself in the data - familiarise
2. Develop initial codes - generate
3. Searching for themes - organise
4. Review themes – re-read, check and amend
5. Define and name themes – finalise
6. Write the report

Question 4

describe the familiarism stage

Answer 4

• Start by reading your data a number of times (at least two!)
• Active reading – make notes on your initial thoughts, what is interesting in the data, are there any repetitions?
• Keep notes as these will act as the foundation for the next stage of analysis

Question 5

describe the coding stage

Answer 5

1. Work your way through the data in a systematic way - code areas that come up a lot or common language used
2. Apply label (code using key word/or phrase - you can do this by hand or using word/NVivo - Code areas that come up a lot or common language used and look for important parts of the transcripts which look at particular topics
3. Review coding as you go
4. You can do this on a selection of transcripts to generate a coding framework (20-30%)
   • You can code a segment of text to multiple codes
   • Code generously in relation to your research question
   • CODE INCLUSIVELY – remember to keep some surrounding data for context
   • MEMOS – build on your initial note-taking and start to write memos to document and increase the transparency of your analysis.

Question 6

describe the creating themes stage of thematic analysis

Answer 6

1. Review and consolidate - Review and consolidate codes into broader categories (i.e., themes)
   • Are there any duplicates?
   • Can any codes be amalgamated into higher order codes (emotion example from video)
2. Generate - Generate broader categories and sub-categories (themes) - use mind maps, post-it notes etc
3. Keep writing memos

Question 7

describee the reviewing themes stage of thematic analysis

Answer 7

1. Re-read individual themes and allocated data - Go back to the data and check that all extracts fit into that theme
2. If extracts don’t fit into the theme? - Go back to the stage before stage 4, re-think, and re-categorise as necessary (you don’t want a red sock in a theme called ‘white washing’ – it will turn everything pink and skew the theme’s meaning)
3. Review themes in relation to data set. - Do they reflect the meaning as a whole? You don’t want themes about types of washing if most of the dataset is about football!)
4. If themes don’t reflect the meaning as a whole? - Go back the previous stage, re-think and amend the themes

Question 8

describe the defining themes and write up stage of thematic analysis

Answer 8

• When your thematic framework is finished, critically consider what each theme is really about and decide on a final name for themes - Remember to interpret and explain and not just describe!
• Write a detailed analysis of each theme -
• What is happening in the data in relation to this theme?
• How can you explain this?
• Use sub-themes to give your analysis structure and clarity

Question 9

what is grounded theory?

Answer 9

• Most widely used way of analysing qualitative data
• Offers a flexible set of inductive guidelines for collecting and analysing qualitative data
• Involves creating codes by defining what you see in the data, not according to preconceived ideas – codes “grounded” in the data
• Involves forming a theory based on the collected data as opposed to collecting data after forming a theory (i.e. as in quant research).
• Ultimate aim of grounded theory is to generate a theory appropriate to the data and justifiable by close examination of the data
• Lots of variation depending on theoretical stance: Glaser & Straus (1967), Strauss (1987), Charmaz (2003).

Question 10

give some of the key characteristics of grounded theory

Answer 10

• Systematic – The process by which theory is generated is through the careful application of the general principles and methods of grounded theory
• Guidelines: GT is essentially a set of guidelines which guide data collection, analysis, and theory generation
• Inductive NOT deductive – focus on generating theories rather than confirming them

Question 11

describe the origins of grounded theory

Answer 11

• The discovery of grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
• Closing the gap between theory and empirical research
• To provide a sound basis for thorough qualitative research
• They eventually split in the 1990s and developed divergent schools of thought
“Glaserian” and “Straussian” versions of grounded theory
• Then Charmaz too (but we wont delve that far)
• Consequence: confusion around exactly what grounded theory procedures and terms are in the literature!
• We use “Straussian” grounded theory in the Department of Psychology

Question 12

Describe the differences between Glaser vs Strauss

Answer 12

Glaser
• Starts with a completely empty mind
• Has a less structured coding process
• Researcher is passive
• Anything can be used as data – even quant!
Strauss 
• Has a general idea of where to start
• Has a more structured coding process
• Researcher is active
• Only traditionally qualitative data

Question 13

describe when to use grounded theory

Answer 13

• When you want to generate a theory
• Understanding of social processes, experiences of a phenomenon
• When there is little or no existing research available on a topic
• Exploratory, generates ideas for further research
• Can be used with any type of qualitative data: media content, conversations, focus groups, biographical data etc..
• Particularly well suited to interview data
• Need to decide on a grounded theory analysis before data collection starts due to the sampling methods involved

Question 14

Give some of the key features of grounded theory

Answer 14

• Theoretical sensitivity
• Theoretical sampling
• Constant comparison
• Data saturation
• Memo-writing
• Stages of coding

Question 15

describe theoretical sensitivity

Answer 15

• Step 1: enter the research with as few predetermined ideas as possible
• Literature review not carried out until after analysis
• Prevents extensive reading
• Researcher not totally naïve – already has ‘sensitising concepts’
• Step 2: The ability to generate concepts from data and relate them meaningfully
• Immersion: See from the respondents point of view
• Questioning: Who, when, what, where, how much, why?
• Researcher needs to be aware of implicit meanings of the data
• Theoretical sensitivity is creative, insightful, conceptual
•

Question 16

Describe theoretical sampling

Answer 16

• Unique to grounded theory
• Also known as purposive sampling
• The process of selecting “incidents, slices of life, time periods, or people on the basis of their potential manifestation or representation of important theoretical constructs” (Patton, 2001, p. 238).
• Simultaneous data collection & analysis
• Start with an initial (a priori) sample
• Generally quite broad inclusion criteria
• Further cases included on the basis of their usefulness in generating theory

Question 17

Describe and explain data saturation

Answer 17

• Theoretical saturation of data means that researchers reach a point in their analysis of data that theoretical sampling of more data will not lead to new information related to their research questions.
• No additional data can be found to generate new relationships and concepts
• Researchers see the same codes, categories, and themes in their data over and over again
• Empirically confident that data is saturated
• Guest, Bunce & Johnson (2012) – “Twelve interviews is enough”

Question 18

Describe and explain memo writing

Answer 18

• Cannot be over-emphasised!
• Writing memos throughout analysis:
• Reflective memos during data collection
• Guide theoretical sampling
• Coding & theory generation
• Start as soon as you have interesting ideas
• Object is to increase theoretical sensitivity
• They evolve – need to come back to them as analysis progresses
• Should be conceptual and not descriptive
• Strauss & Corbin (1998):
• Vary in length & detail
• At the start ‘awkward and simple’
• Individual styles
• Force you to work with concepts, not data
• Force reflection & coherence
• Necessary at end of any analytic session
• Can be written from other memos, not just raw data

Question 19

Give the stages of coding

Answer 19

• Open coding (codes)
• Axial coding (categories)
• Selective coding (themes)
• Theory formation
• Literature review

Question 20

Describe and explain open coding

Answer 20

• Line-by-line (per transcript)
• Name each line of data
• Varied and numerous
• Quick, generative – can produce 100s of codes
• Most lines in the transcript should generate an open code but if there are a few blank that’s ok
• Each code should be one or two words (no more than three)
• If more than 1 words, the words should be linked (usually an adjective and noun)
• Try to use words which the respondent uses.
• Gives you leads to pursue
• Start memo writing at this stage; open codes….

Question 21

Describe and explain axial coding

Answer 21

• Creation of higher-order codes (“conceptual categories”) from open codes (per transcript)
• Only those that reflect data most accurately.
• Looking for:
• Relationships between categories
• Properties of categories
• Action-oriented
• Form categories by:
• Bunch frequent, similar codes into a single category.
• Can form a category based on 2 frequent, opposing codes (e.g. safe/fearful or anxious/relieved)
• Still memo-writing
• Look for quotes to support your categories (in the appendix)

Question 22

describe and explain selective coding

Answer 22

• “The process of integrating and refining categories” (Strauss & Corbin)
• Now looking across all transcripts
• Form 4-5 themes based on axial categories
• All themes should be made up of categories which appear in at least two of the interviews.
• Bunch frequent, similar categories into a single theme
• Only those that reflect data most accurately.
• Now a lot more abstract & generalised
• Look for quotes to support these themes (to go in your results)
• Reflexive: Return to open and axial codes
• Start of theory formation

Question 23

Describe the process of selecting a core theme

Answer 23

• Characteristics of a core theme:
• It’s central!
• Frequent appearance in data
• Abstract
• Can explain variation in the data
• How to choose the core theme?
• Reviewing earlier stages of coding
• Reviewing memos
• The focal part of an emerging storyline
• You generally just know by this point.
• But avoid circularity!

Question 24

Describe the process of generating a core theme

Answer 24

• Generating relationships between the themes and both the core theme and each other - interrelationships
• Writing a storyline
• Moving from description to conceptualisation
• Diagramming (very common, my fave, goes in your appendix)
• Reviewing coding and memos
• Essentially, the product of this is the grounded theory
• Structure of the theory should emerge naturally from the themes in the analysis
• Does it answer the initial research question/s?
• Theory must be explanatory, not descriptive…
• No two grounded theories will look the same

Question 25

Describe the process of selecting codes

Answer 25

• Let the respondents voice be heard
• Select either “typical” or “poignant” quotes
• Typical quotes highlight the essence of a theme or inter-relationship
• “e.g. theme of support – “she helps me emotionally and practically”
• Poignant quotes highlight the extent of the theme or inter-relationship – should be emotive
• E.g. “without her help I would have died”
• Quotes should be:
• evocative, thought provoking, emotive, attention grabbing, add to the story, explain the story

Question 26

describe the process of contextualising quotes in the writeup

Answer 26

• Quotes can’t stand by themselves in isolation
• Need to be illustrative of research findings
• When reporting quotes:
• Say what the finding is
• Introduce the quote by saying who said it and in what context
• Provide the quote
• Comment on the quote by comparing it to other quotes from the same person, other quotes from different people on the same topic, etc.