Social Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Impresssion Formation
A
Impressions of other ppl are influenced by a # of factors.
Ex: we’re often swayed most by info. received early in an interaction (the primacy effect), & we frequently exhibit a trait negativity bias which is the tendency to weigh negative information more heavily than positive information (Rozin & Royzman. 2001).
Other factors that influence the impressions we form of others include the following:
- Schemata (or Schemas)
- Prototypes
- Scripts
2
Q
Schematas
(Schemas)
A
Cognitive structures that organize past info. & experiences & provides a framework (organized, interconnected mental networks of information) that help process, organize & understand new social information & experiences.
Research shows people:
- Pay more attention to evidence the confirm schematas
- Interpret new information in way consistent with schematas
- Have better recall of schemata consistent information.
3
Q
Prototypes
A
Type of Schemata that is more abstract and consist of knowledge about the most respresentative or ideal example of a particular category of people, objects or events.
4
Q
Scripts
A
Provide knowledge about the appropriate sequence of behaviors in specific social situations.
(Ex: your script for “mental health clinic” informs you about how you should behave in that setting and how you can expect others to behave.)
5
Q
Central Traits
A
Are charateristics that have a greater impact than others on impression formation.
Asch (1946) found that certain traits influence impressions more as they carry more weight than other traits because they provide unique info. about a person.
Ex: Descriptor of “warm” & “cold” are central traits that provide unique info. & assoc. w/a large number of other charatieristics therefore carry more weight than other attributes.
6
Q
Psudopatients Study
A
Rosenhan‘s (1973) pseudopatient study demonstrated the effects of the social context & labeling on impression formation.
The results have been interpreted as showing that the behavior of others tends to be percieved in a manner consistent with the social env. in which they occur.
Ex: Once admitted to a mental hospital, the pseudopatients (confederates) were viewed, especially by hospital staff, as being schizophrenic even though they did not exhibit any abnormal behaviors/symptoms & acted normally when when interacting w/staff & other patients. As a result of staff beliefs they diagnosed all but 1 as having schizophrenia.
7
Q
Attributions
A
Refers to the process of determining or inferring why a behavior has occured.
8
Q
3 Types of Attributions
A
- Dispositional Vs. Situational - Behavior may be attributed the dispostional (internal) attributes (Mood, ability & desire) or to the situational (external) factors (Charaterisitics of a task, social situation, & physical environment).
- Stable Vs. Unstable - Behavior assumed to be the result of stable, enduring factors (intelligence/personality) or unstable, temporary factors (fatigue or other transient states).
- Specific Vs. Global - Behaviors viewed as specific (restricted to a limited number of events/circumstances) or Global (occur in many different situations).
9
Q
Gender & Attributions
A
Deaux & Emswiller (1974) research found that:
- Men:
- Success = High level of ability;
- Failure = Lack of effort/unfair Tx
(tend to attribute thier own success to high levels of ability & failiure to a lack of effort or unfair treatment.)
- Women:
- Succes = High Effort/outside help;
- Failure = Lack of Ability
(attribute their own success to high effort or outside help & failure to lack of ability; Felder et al, 95).
10
Q
Fundamental Attribution Bias
A
The tendency for an observer to overestimate dispositional (internal attributes) causes & underestimate situational (external) causes when making attributions about an persons (actor’s) behavior.
11
Q
Actor-Observer Effect
A
In causal attribution, the tendency for an observer to
overestimate the effects of dispositional (internal) factors when making attributions about a person’s behavior but to overestimate the effects of situational (external) factors when making self-attributions.
Attribute own behavior to situational factors.
12
Q
Self-Serving Bias
A
The self-serving bias refers to the tendency to attribute our own successes to dispositional (internal) factors & failures to situational (external) factors & is influenced by the consequences of our behavior.
Situational = negative consequences; blame external factors for failures
Dispositional = positive consequences; take credit for successes
Exception: People who are depressed often exhibit learned helplessness & attribute thier failures to internal, stable & global factors.
13
Q
Heuristics
A
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that people use when making attributions and other social judgments and include the:
- Representativeness,
- Availability,
- Simulation,
- Anchoring & Adjustment heuristics.
Although heuristics allow us to reach conclusions quickly, they may result in errors.
14
Q
Representativeness Heuristic
A
Involves basing your judgement about the likelihood that a person, object or event belong to a particular category on how representative (similar) the person, object or event is to that category while ignoring probability (base rate) data.
15
Q
Avalibility Heuristic
A
Involves judging the likelihood/frequency of an event based on how easy it is to retrieve info. about the event from long-term memory.
You will predict that an event is more likely to occur if you’re able to recall many examples of its occurence than only one example.
16
Q
Simulation Heuristic
A
Involves using mental simulations of an event to determine the likelihood that the event will happen - i.e., if you can easily imagine the event will happen, you’re more likely to predict it will happen.
Ex: Olympic athletes that won silver medals appeared to be less happy about thier win than those w/bronse medals, bc it was easier for silver medalists to imagine winning gold.
17
Q
Anchoring & Adjustment Heuristic
A
Involves using an inital value (anchor) as the basis for making a judgement or estimate.
18
Q
Base Rate Fallacy
A
The tendency to underutilize or ignore relevant statistical data (base rate) & to rely, instead, on irrelevant (case-specific) info. when est. the likelihood (making probabilistic judgments) about an event or characteristic.
Ex: In a study participants were given data about the distribution of GPS in the population & then asked to est. the GPA of hypothetical students. Instead of relying on stats info the participants were more likely to use irrelevant descriptive info about each hypothetical student to est. the GPA.
19
Q
Confirmation Bias
A
The tendency to seek or pay attention to info. that confirms one’s current belief’s (hypothesis) & to ignore or invalidate information that does not.
20
Q
Illusory Correlation
A
The belief that 2 characteristics, events, or other varaibles are related when they actually are not.
Related to outcomes as it causes us to recall and pay more attention to information that confirms our beliefs.
21
Q
False Consensus Effect
A
Occurs when we overestimate the degree to which the beliefs, opinions, and behaviors of others are similar to our own.
22
Q
Gambler’s Fallacy
A
The tendency to believe that the likelihood of a particular chance event is affected by the occurence of previous events when there is actually no relationship between the events.
Ex: A gambler is convinced a string of losses must be followed by a win.
23
Q
Affiliation
A
An innate motive that contributes to the initiation & maintenance of interpersonal relationships. Research confirmed that it is affected by several factors including:
- Anxiety - “misery loves company” (Schachter)
- Arousability - The degree to which a person’s CNS is physiologically aroused by external stimuli (including the presence of others) affects his/her desire to affiliate.
- Gender - Women spend more time conversating, talking to same sex, and affiliate in public places more than men.
24
Q
Misery Loves Miserable Company
A
Schachter (1959) research on affiliation demonstrated that, in anxiety-arousing situations, social comparison is a more potent determinant of affiliation than relief from discomfort.
He concluded that people like to affiliate most w/other ppl who are in similar circumstances (e.g., anxious people prefer to affiliate with other anxious people; miserable ppl prefer to affiliate w/other miserable ppl).
25
Gender Differences in Affiliation
The research has shown that women generally spend more time than men engaged in:
* Conversation,
* Friendships often depend more on communication,
* Are more likely to talk to ppl of the same gender,
* May affiliate more than men do in public places.
26
Attraction
Attraction (liking) is a special type of affiliation and, like affiliation, is affected by a number of factors:
* **Competence** - Tend to like competent & intelligent people more than their incompetent & unintelligent peers, especially when the competent person occasionally makes small blunders.
* **Similarity** - More attracted to people who are similar to ourselves, with similarity in attitudes being particularly important (Law of Attraction, Byrnes).
* **Reciprocity** - Like others who are like us & dislike those who dislike us *(Gain-Loss Effect*).
27
Law of Attraction
Byrne's (1971) law of attraction, we are attracted to others who have similar attitudes bc interacting w/those indivs. is more rewarding than interacting w/ppl who have dissimilar attitudes & is, therefore, more likely to generate positive affect.
28
Gain-Loss Effect
(Aronson & Linder, 1965) Predicts that *people tend to be most attracted to individuals who show increasing liking for them & to be least attracted to individuals who show decreasing liking for them.*
Ex: Most attracted to people who initally evaluate us negatively but subsequently evaluate us positively.
Predicts that liking is related to the pattern rather than the amt. of rewards.
+ to - = Greater liking
29
Evolutionary Theory
(Attractivness in Romantic Relationships)
This theory emphasizes gender differences in reporoductive goals; the primary goal for:
* *_Men_* - Pass on their genes to the next generation. Therefore men are attracted to young physically attractive women whose youth & beauty signal health & fertility.
* *_Women_* - Raise their children. Therefore women are attracted to men who have adequate resources to provide for them & their children & traits such as loyalty & emotional stability to help ensure the man will remain committed to the relationship.
Studies show that qualities that attrcact men & women in romantic partners differs; Men focus on physical attractivness & women are more intersted in a mate's status and resources.
30
Evolutionary Theory & Sexual Jealousy
Gender differences in jealousy related to major threats to reproductive goals for men & women:
* *_Sexual Infidelity_* (Men) - The chance that another man will make his wife pregnant.
* *_Emotinal Infidelity_* (Women) - Possibility the her husband will become emotionally involved with another woman & unavalible to provide resources to support her & her children.
(Buss, Larsen, Westen & Semmelroth, 1992)
31
Emotion-in-Relationship Model
(Berscheid's, 1983) This model of emotion provides an explanation for the experience of strong emotions in close relationships & *proposes that there is an innate mechanism that generates strong emotion in response to unexpected events that disrupt ongoing sequences of behaviors.*
Ex: Whenever a partner engages in behaviors that violate expectations and disrupts ongoing sequence of behaviors; affairs.
A partner is most likely to exp. a high degree of emotion in an intimate relatinship, w/the nature of the emotion (+ or -) depending on the consequences of his/her partners behavior that disrupts an organized sequence of behaviors.
32
Social Exchange Theory
(Theory of interpersonal rel.) Predicts that a person’s decision to leave a relationship depends on the relationship's costs & rewards — i.e., a person is likely to stay in a relationship when rewards exceed costs but leave when costs are greater than
rewards.
More predictive of relationships with strangers, acquaintances & business associates than family & close friends.
33
Equity Theory
(Theory of motivation) Predicts that our perception of equity or fairness (motivation to remain in a rel.) in a relationship is more important than the absolute magnitude of the inputs (contributions or costs) & outcomes (rewards).
If people consider a relationship to be equitable & are likely to stay in it when they believe their input/outcome ratio is proportional to that of their partners.
When percieved as inequitable they experience distress & may decide to leave.
34
Self-Concept/Schemas
Markus & her colleagues (1977) describe the self-concept as consiting of multiple core & peripheral (working) self-schemas:
* *Core self-schemas* are "cognitive generalizations about the self, derived from past experience, that organize and guide the processing of self-related information contained in the individual's social expereience." They are relatively stable & salient across situations.
* *Peripheral self-schemas* are embedded in core self-schemas but are more malleable & tied to immediate social conditions.
35
Barnum Effect
The multifaceted nature of self-concept has been offered as one explanation for the Barnum effect (Forer Effect), which is the *tendency for ppl to accept vague, or general descriptions of oneself (e.g., a horoscope) as accurate.*
Ex: In study all particpants were were given a general description in the form of a personal horoscope or a handwriting or personality analysis. Although the same description was given to all participants the majority agreed that it is a "highly accurate" description of themselves.
36
Self-Perception Theory
When internal cues are insufficent or difficult to interpret, people acquire information about themselves (ID our internal state) by observing our external behaviors and/or the context in which they occur (external cues).
Ppl judge/determine their own internal states in the same way that they determine the states of other ppl.
*Formal Definition:* Self-perception theory predicts that people make attributions about their own attitudes and behaviors on the basis of observations of their behaviors and other external cues (Bem's, 1972)
37
Epinephrine Studies
Schachter & Singer's (1962) Research on the perception of emotion that showed that there are no physiological differences btwn emotions & that perception of emotion depends on a combo of physiological arousal & a cognitive label for that arousal.
Studies examined the perception of emotion, supported the predictions of self-perception theory & the reasearch showed that, in ambiguous situations (when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret), people look at cues in the external environment to ID their internal states.
*Study:* Participants in research were injected with epinephrine, a drug that produces mild physiological arousal and were assigned to one of 3 conditions:
1. Informed - told true effects of drug.
2. Misinformed - given false info. about effects.
3. Ignorant - told drug would have no side effects.
Each participant was placed in a waiting room w/a confederate instructed to act in an angry or euphoric manner. While in waiting room participants in the misinformed or ignorant group about the effects of the drug acted much like the confederate did & informed did not. The results showed that there areno physiological diff. btwn emotions & that the perception of emotions depends on a combo of physiological arousal & a cognitive label for that arousal.
38
Overjustification Hypothesis
Predicts that, when people are externally rewarded for a task they previously found intrinsically interesting, their intrinsic interest in the task will decrease.
→Predicts that a person's internal motivation to perform a behavior will be weakened when s/he is provided w/external reinforcement for doing so.
Ex: When children were given an external reward for participanting in an activity, they were subsequently less interested in the activity when the reward was terminated.
39
Social Comparison Theory
Predicts that people use other (usually similar) people as sources of comparison to evaluate their own attitudes and behaviors (Festinger, 1954).
40
Self-Verification Theory
Predicts that ppl prefer accurate info. (feedback) from others that is consistent with their own self-evaluations (Swann, Pelham, & Krull, 1989).
Ex: Research has confirmed that depressed ppl & ppl w/low self-esteem prefer evaluations that are consistent w/their own negative self-evaluations.
41
Self-Presentation
AKA impression management refers to the strategies that people use to influence how others percieve them:
1. **Self-Monitoring** - Their need & ability to manage the impressions that others form of them; 2 types - High & Low.
2. **Self-Handicapping** - Occurs when ppl attempt to protect their self-esteem & public image by engagin in behavior that will provide them with an excuse for an anticipated failure.
42
Self-Monitoring
Refers to the need for and ability to manage the impression that others form of them. 2 types:
* *_High Self-Monitors_* are most concerned about their "public self’ and, consequently, are good at identifying what behaviors are expected of them and strive to behave in ways that are consistent with expectations.
* *_Low Self-Monitors_* are guided primarily by their own beliefs and values and other internal cues and attempt to alter the situation to match their “private self.”
43
Percieved Self-Control
Refers to the expectation that we can perform behaviors that will produce desired outcomes. Characterisitics linked to percieved self-control include:
1. **Self-Efficacy** (Beliefs) - (Bandura, '00) Refers to a person's sense of competence and effectivness.
2. **Locus of Control** - (Rotter, '66) Refers to the extent to which people believe that personal outcomes are controlled by internal vs. external factors. People with an:
* *Internal locus of control* - consider outcomes to be under the control of their own decisions & behaviors (more desireable outcomes).
* *External locus of control* - consider outcomes to be controlled by external forces such as luck or other people, ot the nature of the situation.
3. **Hardiness** - Protective factor
44
Hardiness
(Kobasa et al., 1982) conducted research to determine why some people are more resilient than others when faced with stress.
The results indicated that the personality trait of hardiness acts as a protective factor against stress and has 3 primary characteristics (3 C's):
1. *_Commitment_* (a sense of purpose and involvement in one‘s relationships and life events);
2. *_Challenge_* (an openness to new experiences and change); and
3. *_Control_* (the belief that one has the ability to influence or manage life events).
The research shows that hardiness reduces the negative effects of stressful life events by facilitaing transformational coping; directly altering those events or thinking about them more optimisticaly & using social supports & other resources.
45
Types of Social Influence
3 basic types:
1. **Conformity to Social Norms -** Occurs when the result of real/imagined social pressure, a person shifts their actions to correspond to those of others (Autokinetic Effect).
2. **Compliance with Requests -** Changes in behavior that occur in response to explicit ot implied requests.
3. **Obidience to Authority** (Milgram)
46
Autokinetic Effect
(Sherif, 1935) used the autokinetic effect (a perceptual phenomenon in which a stationary point of light appears to move in a darkened room) *to study conformity to group norms.*
Participants were asked to estimate how far the light had moved. When participants made estimated alone they varied widely, but when placed in a group a "convergence effect" occured and participant estimates confirmed to the group norm.
There is evidence that conformity to group norms is reduced when a person can express his/her opinion anonymously or at least one other person disagrees with the norm. (Type of Social Influence - Conformity to Social Norms)
47
Compliance with Requests
Compliance refers to changes in behavior that occur in response to explicit or implied requests. Strategies effective for gaining compliance are:
* *_Foot-in-the-door Technique_* - Involves 1st making a small request &, when the request is accepted, making a larger request.
* *_Door-in-the-face Technique_* - 1st making a large request &, when that request is rejected, making a smaller request.
(Type of Social Influence)
48
Obedience to Authority
Milgram‘s (1963) famous & controversial studies evaluated participants‘ willingness to obey the direct order or command of a high-status individual (authority) even when doing so seemed to harm another person. (Type of Social Influence)
49
Response to Social Influence
According to Kelman (1961), social influence can have one of 3 effects on behavior & attitudes:
1. *_Compliance_* - Occurs when the person changes her behavior to obtain a reward or avoid punishment; public.
2. *_Identification_* - Occurs when the person changes her behavior becuase she wants to be liked by or identified with another person. Private change in opinion & attitude, but change only last as long ans person continues to like/admire the influencing agent.
3. *_Internalization_* - Occurs when the individual changes her behavior because she actually (Privately) accepts the beliefs or attitudes of another person.
50
Minority Influence
The research shows that a *minority can influence the majority by maintaining a consistent (but not dogmatic) position* & remains firm & confident in presenting it (Moscovici, 1985).
To influence other members of a group, the member(s) holding the minority position must adopt different strategies than those who agree with the majority opinion. Research shows that people often comply with the majority for normative reasons but comply with the minority for informational reasons (real change in attitudes, beliefs, etc.)
51
Psychological Reactance
(Brehm's, 1972) The tendency to resist being influenced or manipulated by others, usually by doing the opposite of what is expected or requested.
A loss of personal control can cause a person to act in a way that is the opposite of what is requested.
52
Bases of Social Power
(French & Raven, 1959) identified 6 bases of social power that exert influence and compliance in another person (CRERLI):
1. *_Coercive_* - The influencing agent has control over punishments.
2. *_Reward_* - The influencing agent has control over valued rewards & resources.
3. *_Expert_* - The influencing agent is believed to have superior ability, skills, or knowledge.
4. *_Referent_* - The traget person is attracted to, likes, or identifies with the influencing agent.
5. *_Legitimate_* - The traget person believes the influencing agent has legitamate authority.
6. *_Informational_* - The influencing agent possesses specific information that is needed by the target person.
Expert, legitamate & informational power are most likely to result in internalization. (ELI = Internalization)
Coercive & Reward = superfical response (Compliance)
Referent = Identification
Ex: A leader has *referent* power when people are willing to do what she requests because they identify with or are attracted to her.
A leader has *expert* power when people do what is requested becuase they believe the leader has superior ability or expertise.
53
Attitudes
Relatively stable evaluative responses to an entity or situation & consist of 3 components:
1. *_Affective Component_* - Reflects a person's liking for the entity or situation.
2. *_Cognitive Component_* - Consists of the person's beliefs about the entity or situation.
3. *_Behavioral Component_* - Represents a person's behavioral tendencies toward the entity or situation.
54
Theory of Planned Behavior
(Ajzen's, 1991) Predicts that attitudes are accurate predictors of behavior when the attitude measure assesses all 3 components of the behavioral intention:
1. The person‘s attitude toward engaging in the behavior;
2. What the person believes other people think he or she should do; and
3. The person's perceived behavioral control.
55
Characteristics of the Communicator
Research on attitude change has confirmed that credible communicators are more persuasive and that one factor that contributes to **credibility** is **trustworthiness** (e.g., if the person is arguing against his/her own best interests, the person may seem more trustworthy).
Research on attitude change suggests that a high-credible communicator has more influence than a low-credible communicator but this discrepancy tends to decrease over time as the result of the "sleeper effect." which occurs beacuse people tend to remember a message but forget its source. (Hovland, Janis & Kelley's)
56
Sleeper Effect
Occurs bc ppl tend to remember a message but forget it's source.
57
Charateristics of the Communication
Several characteristics of a communication affect its likelihood that it will induce attitude change (persuasiveness):
* ***_Level of Discrepancy:_*** Change in attitude is greatest when level of discrepancy between the positions of the recipient and the message is in the moderate range.
* *_Order of Presentation:_* The order in which the two sides of an argument are presented.
* ***_Primacy Effect_*** - Occurs when the 2nd communication immediatly follows the 1st & the measure of attitude change is taken at a later time.
* ***_Recency Effect_*** - More likely when there is a period of time between the 2 communications & the attitude measure is administered immediatly after 2nd communication.
* ***_Accidental Messages:_*** Whether the message is intentionally delivered or is overheard. Accidental message is usually more persuasive than an intentional message.
* ***_Fear Arousal:_*** Effective method for fostering attitude change when it focuses on negative consequences & includes info. about how to avoid the consequence.
58
Primacy Effect
Occurs when both sides of an argument are presented; The listener is swayed more by the 1st argument when the 2nd argument immediately follows the 1st & attitude measure is administered at a later time.
59
Recency Effect
Occurs when the listener is swayed more by the 2nd argument when there is a delay btwn presentations pf the 2 sides of the argument & the attitude measure is administered immediatley after 2nd argument.
60
Characteristics of the Audience
Certain recipients are more susceptible than others to persuasion, such as people with:
* Lower levels of intelligence
* People with either low or high Self-esteem
* People in their teens or early 20's
All tend to be more easily persuaded.
61
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory proposes that inconsistencies in cognitlons produce discomfort (dissonance) that motivates the individual to reduce the dissonance by changing his/her cognitions.
Studies:
* Aronson & Mills's research found that women who underwent a severe initiation into a group were more likely to describe the group in favorable terms.
* Festinger & Carlsmith's research found that participants who were paid $1.00 to describe a boring study as enjoyable to potential participants subsequently said the study was actually enjoyable.
62
Balance Theory
(Heider's, 1958) Cognitive consistency theory & predicts that a person is motivated to change an attitude when s/he experiences inconsistencies in attitudes. Focuses on the relations among 3 entities:
1. The person (P),
2. Another person (O), and a
3. Third person, idea, event, or object (X).
P-O-X Theory
It proposes that the relations may be balanced or unbalanced, depending on the pattern of likes and dislikes among the entities.
Ex: Balanced = Paul (P) likes Olive (O), and P & O both like foreign films (X).
In contrast if P like O but hates X & then learns that O loves X, P will experiencea state of imbalance & as a result be motivated to change his attitude toward O or X.
63
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
(Petty et al.'s, 1994) is a cognitive theory of attitude change that distinguishes between 2 information processing routes:
1. *_Central Route_* - Systematic processing of info. & is likely when the listener‘s motivation is high bc the message is interesting or important.
* The listener has the ability to process the info. contained in the message, &/or the listener is in a neutral or slightly negative mood.
* Attitude change depends on quality of the argument, is more enduring & most resistant to future attempts at persuasion.
* Reliance on this route req. greater mental effort & produces longer-lasting attitude change.
2. *_Peripheral Route_* - Relies on mental shortcuts & is likely when the listener is unmotivated bc the message is unintersting or unimportant,
* The listener lacks the ability to process the info. &/or the listener is in a positive mood.
* Attitude change depends on quantity of the argument & on the presence of persuasive cues such as attractivness & status of the communicator.
64
Social Judgement Theory
(Sherif & Hovland, 1961) Theory of attitude change, predicts that people have 3 “categories of judgment" by which they evaluate persuasive messages:
1. *Latitude of Acceptance* (Most likely to be persuaded)
2. *Latitude of Non-commitment*, and
3. *Latitude of Rejection*
The more ego-involved we are w/the topic, the larger the latitude of rejection & the smaller the latitiudes of acceptance & non-commitment.
65
Attitude Inoculation
(McGuire) A method of reducing the effectivness of a persuasive message that is based on the medical model.
Found that a recipient of a persuasive message is less likely to be persuaded when he/she has been inoculated against it, which involves providing the recipient with arguments against his/her position & with weak counterarguments (refutations against those arguments).
Innoculation has been found to be a particularly effective method for reducing persuasibility.
66
Aggression
Baron & Richardson define aggression as any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living bieng who is motivated to avoid such treatment.
67
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
This hypothesis proposes that aggression is a consequence of frustration, which is produced whenever the attainment of a desired goal is blocked.
Purpose of aggressive behavior is to eliminate the frustration block, if it can't be eliminated agression might be displaced onto another object.
A revised version predicts that frustration leads to aggression in the presence of aggressive cues.
* Berkowitz added the role of aggressive cues proposed that unjustified frustration leads to anger & that this anger is most likely to elicit aggression in the presence of aggressive cues.
68
Social Learning Theory
Bandura's (1983) theory predicts that learning can occur simply by observing the behavior of a model. It has been used to explain the acquisition of aggressive behaviors as the result of observational learning (e.g., the effects of media violence).
Study: Children observed a model act aggressively toward an inflatable "Bobo" doll. When the children were subsequently left alone with the doll, they often displayed aggressive behaviors similar to those of the model.
69
Effects of Media Violence
The controversy about the effects of media violence has been fueled by research on observational (social) learning.
The research has generally confirmed that viewing media violence increases aggression by providing viewers w/models for aggressive behavior.
Media violence can affect attitudes as well as behavior — e.g., frequent viewing of media violence has been linked to a tendency to overestimate the likelihood that one will be a victim of violence.
70
Effects of Pornography
Studies investigating the effects of pornography have shown that, while exposure to mild erotica may reduce aggressiveness, exposure to pornography with violent themes tends to increase aggressive behaviors toward women as well as increase acceptance of rape myths and the adoption of callous attitudes toward sexual violence
71
Deindividuation Model
Zimbardo's (1970) model proposes that ppl are more likely to act aggressively or in other antisocial ways when they believe they can act anonymously.
It has been associated with increases in antisocial behavior, apparently bc the deindividuated person's behavior is no longer controlled by guilt, fear of evaluation, or other inhibitory controls.
72
Prison Study
Zimbardo's (1972) prison simulation study demonstrated that people alter their behaviors to fit their assigned roles.
*Study:* Stanford undergraduates volunteers were randomly assigned to the role of prisoner or prison guard and were given uniforms. Prisoners were "arrested" by Palo Alto police, booked at the police station & taken to a simulated prison made to look as realistic as possible. The prisoners were placed in cells, and guards were allowed to determine most of the prison rules but prohibited from physical punishement. The study only lasted for 6 out of the 14 days due to the rapid deterioration of the prisoners and guards. Guards became hostil and cruel & in response prisoners showed signes of depression, anxiety, helplessness and stress.
73
Catharsis Hypothesis
Predicts that an act of aggression reduces an indiv. arousal level which then decreases the likelihood that he/she will act aggressively again in the near future.
The research has not been supportive of this claim and actually shows the opposite effect (increase aggression).
Least effective for reducing aggression in children, & actually increases aggression.
74
Threat of Retaliation
Studies have shown that although opportunities for catharsis do not seem to reduce aggressive behaviors, threats of retaliation often do.
A threat of retaliation often reduces aggressiveness, especially when they come from people who are high in status or power.
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Causes of Prejudice
Prejudice has been linked to a number of factors including:
1. **Authoritarian Personality** - Adorno & colleagues (1950) concluded that political extremism & prejudice are manifestations of an authoritarian personality, charaterized by a high degree of rigidity, cynicism, commit to conventional values & intolerance of ambiguity; willingness to submit to authority; & tendency to rigidly stereotype minority members.
2. **Intergroup Conflict** - Sherif's (1966) realistic conflict theory describes prejudice as the result of intergrp conflict caused by competition over power & ltd. resources.
3. **Group Identity** - Tajfel & Turner's (1979) social ID theory proposes that grp ID is an important part of a person's self-concept & ppl are motivated to maintain a + grp ID by viewing their own social grp as + & distinct relative to other grps.
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Levels of Racism
Several investigators argue, to understand the effects of racism, it is necessary to recognize that it operates on multiple levels. These levels may be categorized as:
* *_Cultural_* - expressed in societal beliefs & customs that promote the assumption that the lang., traditions, values & other aspects of one culture are superior to those of other cultures.
* *_Institutional_* - Expressed thru the policies & practices of political, criminal justice, education & healthcare systems.
* *_Interpersonal_* - A manifestation of Indiv. racism & is expressed in interactions btwn indiv. & btwn grps & incl. social exclusion, stigma, harassment & threats.
* *_Internalized_* - Refers to the acceptance of negative social stereotypes & beliefs by the targets of those stereotypes & beliefs.
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Symbolic Racism
(Kinder & Sears et al.) A theory about current, less blatant forms of racism that reflect a combo of:
* Anti-African-American attitudes,
* Strong support for traditional American values (e.g., the work ethic), &
* A belief that African Americans violate those rules.
Propose that that symbolic (modern) racism has gradually taken the place of “old-fashioned" racism and that symbolic racists believe that African Americans & other minorities violate such traditional American values as individualism, self-reliance, and the work ethic.
They also deny their prejudice and attribute the social and economic problems of minority group members to internal factors (e.g., a lack of effort and
discipline).
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Methods for Reducing Prejudice
1. **Legislation:** Allport proposed that, when designing interventions to reduce prejudice, it's important to keep in mind that "stateways" (legislation) can effectivly precede "folkways" (personal attitudes & beliefs).
2. **Intergroup Contact:** Increasing contact btwn members of diff. grps is helpful for reducing prejudice when members of diff. grps have equal status & power & when intergroup cooperation is needed to achieve mutual goals.
* Contact Hypothesis
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Contact Hypothesis
Proposes that prejudice may be reduced through contact between members of majority and minority groups as long as the following conditions are met:
* Members of the different groups have equal status and power
* Members are provided with opportunities that disconfirm negative stereotypes about members of the other group; and
* Intergroup cooperation is necessary to achieve mutual (superordinate) goals.
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Prosocial Behavior
Actions that are performed with the intention of helping another person.
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Origins of Prosocial Behavior
Commonly cited explanations for prosocial behaviorsare:
1. **Evolutionary Theory:** According to this theory, prosocial behavior can be traced to kin selection which is a means for rnsuring the survival of our genes.
2. **Social Norms:** An alternative evolutionary theory focuses on the role of norms, such as:
* *The norm of reciprocity -* which dictates that we should help others who have helped us.
* *The norm of social responsibility* - which states we should assist others who are in need of help wheter or not they have helped us in the past or are likely to in the future.
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Robber's Cave Study
Sherif's (1961) research with boys at a summer camp demonstrated that the most effective way to reduce intergroup hostility is having the members of the groups cooperate to achieve a mutual (superordinate) goal.
Research provided onfo. on competition & cooperation
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Superordinate Goals
This can be achieved only when individuals or members of different groups work together cooperatively and have been found useful for reducing intergroup conflict.
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Jigsaw Method
Aronson & colleagues who applied the jigsaw method to a 5th grade classroom found this method of learning in which assignments must be completed by teams with each team member being assigned a different piece of the project.
It has been found to improve intergroup relations, cooperation, and self-esteem as well as academic achievement, especially for members of minority groups.
Helps reduce hostility related to ethnic, racial or cultural differences.
These results are consistent w/Sherif's Robber cave study that found cooperation in achieving superordinate goals reduced hostility btwn grps of boys.
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Bystander Apathy
Refers to the tendency of ppl to not intervene in emergency situations when others are present. It has been attributed to 3 factors:
1. *_Pluralistic Ignorance:_* Based on social comparison, bystandards conclude that assistance is unnecessary bc others are not offering assistance.
2. *_Evaluation Apprehension:_* Bystandards do not help bc they fear social disapproval.
3. *_Diffusion of Responsibility:_* Bystandards do not accept personal responsibility for helping bc they assume that others will offer help (Latane & Darley, 1968).
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Field Theory
Lewin's field theory describes human behavior as being a product of interdependent factors in the person and his or her physical and social environment.
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Motivational Conflicts
Intraindividual Conflict
Lewin (1931), Miller (1944) & Dollar & Miller (1950) distinguished between 4 intraindividual (motivational) conflicts:
1. *_Approach-Approach_* - Occurs when we must choose btwn 2 equally positive or attractive goals.
* Choose 1 of 2 options & feel confident it was the correct one.
2. *_Avoidance-Avoidance_* - Occurs when we must choose btwn 2 equally negative or unattractive goals. Produces vacilation btwn the 2 choices.
* Vaccilate btwn 2 options, 1st choosing 1 then the other
3. *_Approach-Avoidance_* - Occurs when a single goal has both positive & negative qualities.
4. *_Double Approach-Avoidance_* - Which occurs when we have to choose btwn 2 goals that both have positive & negative qualities. This is the most difficult type to resolve.
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Zeigarnik Effect
The tendency to remember interrupted & unfinished tasks better than completed ones, especially in non-stressful situations.
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Effects of Crowding
Crowded conditions tend to enhance positive experiences & increase the unpleasantness of negative experiences.
Men seem to be more stressed by crowded conditions than women & are more likely to react w/increased aggressiveness, apparently because men require more personal space.
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Learned Helplessness
A learned expectation that one cannot control negative life events, which leads to apathy & depression.
Assoc. w/internal, stable & global attributions
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Self-Monitoring
Refers to the need for & ability to manage the impression that others form of us.
* *_High self-monitors:_* are most concerned about their "public self" & strive to match their attitudes & behaviors to the situation.
* *_Low self-monitors:_* Are guided primarily by their own beliefs & values & attempt to alter the situation to match their "private self."
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Overjustification Hypthesis
The notion that when ppl are externally rewarded for a task they previously found intrinsically interesting, their intrinsic interest in the task will decrease.
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Heterosexism & Sexual Prejudice
As defined by Herek:
* *_Heterosexism_* Refers to "an ideological system that denies, denigrates & stigmatizes among nonheterosexual forms of behavior, identity, relationships or community."
* *_Sexual Prejudice:_* Refers to "negative attitudes based on sexual orientation, whether the target is homosexual, bisexual or heterosexual."
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Self-Perception Theory
Bem (1972) The theory that individuals make attributions about their own attitudes & behaviors on the basis of observation of their behaviors & other external cues.
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Conformity to Group Norms (Asch)
Solomon Asch (1958) conducted studies on grp member (the participants & confederates) were shown a vertical line & asked to indicate which of the other 3 lines it matched in terms of length.
Results indicated that when the confederates offered their est. 1st, the participants conformed to the confederates est. about 1/3rd of the time.
The participant was more likely to conform when the confederates were unanimous in their judgement of the line length than when even one confederate deviated from the grp norm.
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Theory of Psychological Androgyny
(Bem) An additive model of androgyny which predicts that males & females who are androgynous are better able to adjust to new situations; obtain scores that reflect a balance of masculinity & frmininity.
* Higher levels of psychological health are found among indiv. who obtain high scores on both masculinity & femininity
