Learning Theories

Question 1

Classical Conditioning (Unconditioned Stimulus/Response, Conditioned Stimulus/Response)

Answer 1

Unconditioned Stimuli & Responses: An unconditionditioned stimulus (US)/Meat Powder natually elicits the target response, which is referred to as the unconditioned response (UR)/Salivation

Conditioned Stimulus & Response: A conditioned stimulus (CS)/Neutral stimulus that does not naturally elicit the target response, but after being paired w/the US many times, it produces a conditioned response (CR).

In Pavlov’s original studies, the meat powder was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was the unconditioned response.

A tone was the conditioned stimulus; &, as a result of its pairing with meat powder, the tone eventually elicited a conditioned response of salivation.

Question 2

Forward Conditioning

Answer 2

Classical conditioning is most effective when a forward conditioning procedure is used (Presentation of the CS preceded or is simultaneous w/presentation).

1. Delay Conditioning: Most effective & involves presenting the CS so that it precedes & overlaps presentation of the US.
2. Trace Conditioning: Involves presenting & terminating the CS before presenting the US.
3. Simultaneous Conditioning: Involves presenting the CS & US at the same time (Least Effective).

Regardless of the number of pairings of the CS & US, the CR is ordinarily less in magnitude than the UR

Question 3

Backward Conditioning

Answer 3

The US is presented prior to the CS

Question 4

Classical Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 4

• Classical Extinction: is the elimination of a classically conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.
  
  • Once a CR has been est., the CR eventually disappears when the CS is repeatedly presented w/out the US, extinction of the DR occurs.

Often, an extinguished conditioned response shows

• Spontaneous Recovery: It recurs in response to the CS following extinction without additional pairing of the CS and US.
  
  • Following the apparent extinction of a CR, the CR returns when the CS is subsequently presented alone.
  • Suggests that extinction suppresses (rather than eliminates) a CR.

Question 5

Stimulus Generalization

Answer 5

In operant & classical conditioning, stimulus generalization refers to responding w/a particular response to similar stimuli.

• Classical conditioning, it refers to responding to stimuli similar to the CS also elicit a CR.
• Operant conditioning, it refers to responding to the stimuli similar to the discriminative stimulus with the target behavior.

Question 6

Stimulus Discrimination and Experimental Neurosis

Answer 6

(Classical conditioning)

• Stimulus Discrimination: Training is used to reduce stimulus generalization by teaching the organism to respond w/a CR only in the presence of the original CS.

When discrimination are difficult, the organism may exhibit

• Experimental Neurosis: It may perform unusual behaviors such as restlessness, aggressiveness, or fear.

Question 7

Higher-Order Conditioning

Answer 7

Higher-Order Conditioning involves 2 steps:

1. First, is ordinary classical conditioning in which a CS (bell) is paired w/the US (Meat Powder) until a CR (Salivation) is established.
2. Second, the original CS is treated like a US & is paired w/ a second neutral stimulus so that it also elicits a CR (Bell + Flashing Light, till flashing light prod. salivation)

occurs when the CR elicited by the 2nd CS is less in magnitude than the CR elicited by the original CS.

Question 8

Blocking

Answer 8

In classical conditioning, blocking occurs when an association has already been established between a CS and US and, as a result, the CS blocks an association between a second neutral stimulus and the US when the CS and the second neutral stimulus are presented together prior to the US.

Question 9

Reciprocal Inhibition

Answer 9

Reciprocal inhibition is a form of counterconditioning developed by Wolpe to alleviate anxiety reactions by pairing a stimulus (CS) that produces anxiety with a stimulus (US) that produces relaxation or other response that is incompatible with anxiety.

Question 10

Systematic Desensitization/Dismantling Strategy

Answer 10

• Systematic Desensitization: was developed by Wolpe as an application of counterconditioning (reciprocal inhibition) for eliminating anxiety responses & involves pairing hierarchically arranged anxiety-evoking stimuli with relaxation to eliminate anxiety.
  
  • Begining w/the least anxiety-arousing situation, each situation is paired in imagination w/an unconditioned stimulus that elicits relaxation.
• Dismanyling Strategy: suggests that extinction (rather than counterconditioning) is responsible for its effectiveness.

Question 11

In Vivo Aversion Therapy/Covert Sensitization

Answer 11

In-Vivo Aversion Therapy (Overt Sensitization): utilizes counterconditioning to reduce the attractiveness to reduce a stimulus or behavior by repeatedly pairing that stimulus or behavior in “real life” (in vivo) w/a stimulus that produces an undesirable or unpleasant response.

• Pairing alcohol consumption w/electric shock to reduce alcohol use is an example of in vivo aversive counterconditioning. In this situation, the alcohol is the CS, the electric shock is the US, and the fear or discomfort is the UR/CR.

Covert Sesbitization: is similar to in vivo aversion therapy except that the CS and US are presented in imagination.

• Uses counterconditioning to eliminate undesireable self-reinforcing behavior
• Research has shown that aversion therapy has good short-term effects but that relapse rates are high & is usually combined w/CBT techniques that focus on reducing relapse such as anxiety management, coping skills training or lifestyle modification.

Question 12

In Vivo Exposure with Response Prevention/Flooding

Answer 12

In-Vivo Exposure with Response Prevention: is a classical extinction technique that involves exposing the individual in “real life” (in vivo) to anxiety-arousing stimuli (the CS) w/out the original US while preventing the individual from making his/her usual avoidance response.

• Based on the assumption that an anxiety-arousing object or situation is a CS & that repeated exposure to the CS will result in extinction of the CR
• Exposure must be for a sufficiently long period of time.

Flooding: is a type of exposure that involves exposing the individual to the most anxiety-arousing stimuli for an extended period.

Question 13

Implosive Therapy

Answer 13

Based on the assumption that certain events are consistently avoided to reduce anxiety & that prolonged exposure to those events w/out the US will produce extinction of the anxiety response.

Conducted in imagination & involves presenting the feared stimulus vividly enough so as to arouse high levels of anxiety.

Believed that avoidance behavior is learned during childhood & represents conflictual rel. to sexual/aggresive impulses & images embellished w/psychodynamic themes.

Question 14

EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing)

Answer 14

EMDR was originally developed as an intervention for PTSD but has since been applied to other disorders. It combines rapid lateral eye movements with exposure and other techniques drawn from cognitive, behavioral, and psychodynamic approaches. Some research suggests that its effectiveness is not due to rapid eye movements but, instead, to exposure to the feared event (i.e., to extinction)

Question 15

Law of Effect/Thorndike

Answer 15

Thorndike’s Law of Effect proposes that, when behaviors are followed by “satisfying consequences,” they are more likely to increase or occur again.

This theory was originally derived from studies in which hungry cats were placed in “puzzle boxes” & had to perform a particular behavior in order to escape from the box and obtain food.

Concluded that learning is due to connections that develop btwn behaviors & stimuli as the result of trial-and-error.

Question 16

Operant Conditioning/Skinner (Reinforcement and Punishment)

Answer 16

According to Skinner, most complex behaviors are voluntarily emitted or not emitted as the result of the way they “operate” on the environment (i.e. as a result of the consequences that follow them). Skinner distinguished between 2 types of consequences:

• Reinforcement: is a consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated
• Punishment: is a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will recur.

He also distinguished between positive and negative reinforcement and punishment, with

• “positive” referring to the application of a stimulus (consequence) following a behavior and
• “negative” referring to the withdrawal or termination of a stimulus (consequence) following a behavior.

Question 17

Operant Extinction and Extinction Bursts

Answer 17

Operant Extinction: refers to the elimination of a previously reinforced response through the consistent withholding of reinforcement following that response.

Extinction Burst: Operant conditioning is usually associated with a temporary increase in the response.

Question 18

Continuous Schedule of Reinforcement

Answer 18

Involves providing reinforcement following each performance of the target response. It is associated with the fastest acquisition of a response but assoc. w/a couple of disadvantages:

• High susceptibility to satiation: Occurs when a reinforcer loses its reinforcing value.
• Extinction: Results in extinction quickly once the reinforcer is no longer presented.

Question 19

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement

Answer 19

Skinner distinguished between 4 types of intermittent (partial) schedules of reinforcement. Where reinfircement is delivered after some (but not all) responses:

1. Fixed interval (FI): (Scalloped; time) Schedule involves reinforcing the indiv. after a fixed period of time as long as behavior occurs at least once during the interval.
2. Variable interval (VI): (Time) Schedule involves providing reinforcement after a varying amount of time, as long as behavior occurs at least one (w/the average time interval being predetermined).
3. Fixed ratio (FR): (# of responses) Schedule involves providing reinforcement after a predetermined number of responses;
4. Variable ratio (VR): (# of responses) Schedule entails applying the reinforcer after a varying number of responses, w/the average number being predetermined.
   
   • The VR schedule is associated with high, stable rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction.

The best way to est. behavior begins w/continuous sechedule 7 switch to imtermittent sched. when behavior reached desired level.

Question 20

Matching Law

Answer 20

When using concurrent schedules of reinforcement, there are two or more simultaneous and independent schedules of reinforcement, each for a different response. According to the matching law, in this situation, the organism will match its relative frequency of responding to the relative frequency of reinforcement for each response.

Question 21

Stimulus Control

Answer 21

(Operant Conditioning) The process by which a behavior does or does not occur due to the presence of discriminative stimuli.

• Positive discriminative stimuli signal that the behavior will be reinforced (Child approaches father when watching other types of TV; not football, she will be reinforced an get his attention)
• Negative discriminative stimuli (S-delta stimuli) signal that the behavior will not be reinforced (Child appraches her father while watching football he will ignore her and she will not be reinforced).

AKA “behavior under stimulus control”

Question 22

Escape Conditioning

Answer 22

Occurs when a person’s behavior is maintained bc it allows the person to escape an undesirable stimulus.

Ex: Child throws a tantrum whenever his parents want him to eat food he doesn’t like for dinner, his parents will then let him eat something else to stop the tantrum.

An application of negative reinforcement in which the target behavior is an escape behavior- i.e., the indiv. engages in the behavior in order to escape the negative reinforcer.

Question 23

Avoidance Conditioning

Answer 23

A cue (positive discriminative stimulus) signals that the undesirable stimulus (negative reinforcer) is about to begin.

The indiv. can avoid the stimulus (negative reinforcer) completely by performing the approp. (target behavior) as soon as s/he percieves the cue.

Combo of classical conditioning w/negative reinforcement.

Question 24

Positive Reinforcement (Thinning, Satiation)

Answer 24

Positive reinforcement occurs when the application of a stimulus following a behavior increases the occurrence of the behavior.

The establishment of a new behavior is usually most rapid when positive reinforcement is applied on a continuous schedule, while maintenance of the behavior (resistance to extinction) is maximized when the behavior is reinforced on an intermittent schedule.

Consequently, the best procedure is to begin with a continuous schedule of reinforcement and to change to an intermittent schedule once the behavior well-established.

Thining: The process of reducing the proportion of reinforcements. Up to a point, the greater the amount of positive reinforcement, the greater its effectiveness.

Satiation: However, past that point, satiation may occur, which means that the reinforcer has lost its reinforcing value.

Question 25

Prompts/Fading

Answer 25

• Prompts: Involves providing an indiv. w/verbal or physical cues that help facilitate the acquisition of a new desired behavior.
• Fading: The gradual removal of a prompt is referred to as fading. (Ex: Teach a dog to sit)
  
  • (Note that the term fading is also used to describe the procedure that is used to eliminate an inappropriate stimulus-response connection by gradually replacing the inappropriate stimulus with appropriate stimuli so that the response becomes associated with the latter.)

Question 26

Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

Answer 26

• Primary (Unconditioned) Reinforcers are inherently/naturally reinforcing & do not depend on exp. to acquire their reinforcing value (Ex: food & water).
• Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcers acquire their reinforcing value thru their repeated assoc. w/1 or more primary reinforcers. (Ex: Money)
  
  • When a secondary reinforcer is assoc. w/multiple primary reinforcers, it’s referred to as a generalized secondary reinforcer (Ex: Money & tokens in a token economy)

Question 27

Thinning

Answer 27

The process of gradually reducing the frequency of reinforcment (e.g, of switching from a continuous to an intermittent schedule of reinforcement).

Question 28

Shaping vs. Chaining

Answer 28

(Operant Conditioning) Shaping and chaining are both used to establish complex voluntary behaviors.

• Shaping: (Successive approximation training) Used to help an indiv. acquire a complex behavior & involves teaching a new behavior through prompting & reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target behavior; only the final behavior is of concern. (successive approximation)
  
  • Only final behavior is important
• Chainning: Involves est. a sequence of responses, each response acts as a reinforcement for the previous response & as a discriminiative stimulus for the next response (a “behavior chain”); the entire sequence of responses is important.
  
  • Each response in the behavior chain is important

Question 29

Premack Principle

Answer 29

An application of positive reinforcement that involves using a high-frequency behavior as a positive reinforcer for a low-frequency behavior.

The high-frequency behavior/activity may not be immediately avalible, which can reduce the effectivness of the intervention since positive reinforcement is most effective when the reinforcer can be delivered immediately following the target behavior.

Grandma’s Rule: You can go out an play w/your friends after you finish your HW.

Question 30

Extinction

Answer 30

Involves removing consequences/reinforcement from previously reinforced behavior to reduce or eliminate it.

• One prob. is that removal of reinforcement often prod. an Extinction Burts (A temp. increase in the target behavior before it decreases).
• Another prob. is that it eliminates a behavior w/out fostering more desierable ones.

Extinction has been found to be an effective method for reducing a child’s temper tantrums.

Question 31

Differential Reinforcement

Answer 31

Differential reinforcement (e.g., DRA, DRO, and DRI) is an operant technique that combines positive reinforcement & extinction.

During a specified period of time, the individual is reinforced when he/she engages in behaviors other than the target behavior.

Often used to eliminate self-reinforcing behaviors by reinforcing alt. behaviors as long as indiv did not engage in target behavior.

Question 32

Punishment

Answer 32

Punishment: occurs when the application or withdrawal of a stimulus following a behavior decreases the occurrence of that behavior.

A major disadvantage of punishment is that it suppresses (rather than eliminates) a behavior.

Punishment is usually most effective when it is initially applied in moderation.

• Positive Punishment: Techniques that use positive punishment involve applying a stimulus following a behavior to reduce or eliminate that behavior & includes verbal reprimants & physical punishment.
• These techniques are usually less effective than those that rely on positive punishment
  
  • Tend to suppress rather than eliminate a behavior.
  • Assoc. w/a number of negative consequences including fostering aggressive behaviors in indiv. being punished qas well as fear of punisher.
  • Susceptible to habituation, which occurs when the punishment loses its aversive charateristic after being repeatedly applied & indiv. gets used to the punishment.
• Negative Punishment: Involves removing a stimulus following a behavior to decrease that behavior.
  
  • Response Cost
  • Time out

Question 33

Habituation

Answer 33

Habituation: Initially administering punishment in a weak form and then gradually increasing its intensity increases the likelihood of habitutation, which occurs when a punishment loses its effectiveness.

Question 34

Overcorrection

Answer 34

An operant technique that is used to eliminate an undesirable behavior. A type of punishment in which the penalty for the undesierable behavior is performing more desierable alternative behaviors.

Consists of 2 phases:

1. Restitution Phase: It involves having the indiv. correct the consequences of his/her behavior (Ex: Make a mess of room, req. to clean room) &/or
2. Positive Practice Phase: The person practice approp. corrective behaviors (Ex: Req. child to clean family room after own room).

It may also require constant supervision and/or physical guidance, which can be problematic for indiv. who are very resistant or have been physically abused.

Question 35

Response Cost

Answer 35

A form of negative punishment that involves removing a reinforcer (e.g., a specific number of tokens or points) following a behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior.

Question 36

Time-Out

Answer 36

A form of negative punishment in which the individual is removed from all opportunities for reinforcement for a prespecified period of time following a misbehavior in order to decrease the occurrence of that behavior.

• It’s effectivness is increased when it is combined w/a warning signal or explanation about why it’s being applied.

Question 37

Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)

Answer 37

A FBA is used to clarify the characteristics of a target behavior and determine its antecedents and consequences in order to identify an alternative behavior that serves the same functions and function-based interventions that can be used to substitute the alternative behavior for the target behavior.

Question 38

Tolman’s Latent Learning

Answer 38

Tolman’s model of latent learning proposes that learning can occur:

• w/out reinforcement &
• w/out being manifested in performance improvement.

Tolman’s research showed that rats formed “cognitive maps” of mazes without being reinforced for doing so.

The results indicate that the animals had learned something about the maze (i.e., formed cog. maps) & lead to the conclusion that learning can occur w/out apparent change/improvments in behavior (Reinforcement) & refered to this as latent learning.

Question 39

Insight Learning

Answer 39

(Kohler) Insight learning (the “aha” experience) refers to the apparent sudden understanding of the relationship btwn elements in a prob-solving situation.

Learning involves discovering relationships btwn elements of the prob.

Insight learning was originally described by Kohler as a result of his research with chimpanzees w/a variety of prob-solving tasks.

• In one study “Sultan” had an aha exp. where he gained insight into the prob. and was able to solve it.

Question 40

Observational Learning (Guided Participation, Self-Efficacy)

Answer 40

Bandura’s observational learning theory predicts that behaviors can be acquired simply by observing someone else (a model) perform those behaviors & that observational learning is cognitively mediated and involves 4 processes:

1. Attention: Learner attend to & accurately percieves the modeled behavior.
2. Retention: Symbolically process the modeled behavior in memory via visual imagery/verbal coding.
3. Motor Re-Production: Accurately reproduce & reherse the modeled behavior enhanced thru practice & performance feedback.
4. Motivation: Perform req. motivation which is enhanced when reinforced but reinforcement may be either internal (self reinforced), vicarious or external.

Proposes that rienforcment is more important for performance than for learning.

Research on observational learning found that participant modeling, which combines modeling with guided participation, is the most effective type of observational learning especially for treating phobic reactions.

• An observer is more likely to imitate a model who is high in status or expertise;
• Is percieved to be similar to the observer
• Has been rienforced for perfroming the behavior.
• Coping Models (Are more effective) Initally exhibit some appreahnsion when approaching feared object, but then overcome fear & successfully perform target behavior.
• Mastery Models: (Less effective) Show no fear or uneasiness while performing the behavior.

Bandura’s theory predicts that self-efficacy beliefs (beliefs about one’s ability to perform a behavior or achieve a goal) are a primary source of motivation.

• When an indiv. has low self-efficacy beliefs they are less likely to engage in behaviors & may avoid situations in which they are req. to perform those behaviors.

Reciprocal Determininsm: Refers to the fact that a person’s characteristics, overt behaviors, & env. are in constant interaction.

Question 41

Learned Helplessness Model/Reformulated Version

Answer 41

The learned helplessness model was originally derived from the observation that animals who were subjected to an uncontrollable negative event (inescapable electric shock) subsequently did not try to escape that event when they were able to do so.

The reformulated version of the model added attributions to the original theory and proposed that some forms of depression are due to the tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors. A subsequent revision acknowledged the role of attributions but proposed that they’re important only to the extent that they contribute to a sense of hopelessness.

Question 42

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (Ellis)

Answer 42

From the perspective of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), emotions & behaviors are the consequences of a chain of events - A, B, C- where:

• Antecedent (A): is the external event to which the individual is exposed; activating event
• Belief (B): is the belief the individual has about the event (A); and
• Emotional Consequence of Belief (C): is the emotion or behavior that results from the belief (B).

In other words, an emotional or behavioral response to an external event is due to beliefs about that event rather than to the event itself.

Primary goal is to ID & replace irrational beliefs w/more rational realistic ones.

In REBT, events D & E are added to the ABC chain:

• Dispute (D): Therapist attempts to dispute & alter the indiv. irrational beliefs.
• E: Alternative thoughts & beliefs that result from D

According to Ellis (1985), the primary cause of neurosis is the continual repetition of certain common irrational beliefs which are the targets of therapy.

12 common irrational beliefs underlie nurotic behavior

• Each belief incorporates a rigid or absolute demand that is expressed as a “must”, should,” or “ought”

Question 43

Cognitive-Behavior Therapy - Beck

(Schemas, Automatic Thoughts, Collaborative Empiricism, Socratic Dialogue)

Answer 43

(Beck) Cognitive-Behavior Therapy (CBT) goals are to correct faulty info. processing & to modify dysfx beliefs & assumptions that maintain maladaptive behaviors & emotions.

Strategies include cog. & behavioral rehersal, guided imagery, avtivity scheduling, & Socratic Dialogue: Questioning is the primary tool to help CT explore their maladaptive congnitions & reach logical conclusions about probs. & their consequneces.

CBT attributes depression & other psychopatholoy to certain cognitive phenomena including dysfunctional cognitions:

• Cognitive Schemas - Underlying cognitive structures that are ways of org. & interpreting exp.
• Automtic Thoughts - Surface level cognitions that have a strong emotional component & are experienced as plausible & logical.
• Cognitive Distortions - Systematic errors in information processing & are logical fallacies or errors in info. processing.
  
  • Include magnification, overgeneralization, dichotomous thinking & arbitrary inference (Drawing conclusions w/out sufficent evidence)

Each D/O has a unique cog. profile that reflects the indiv. automatic thoughts, cog. schemas & cog. distortions

• The cog. profile for depression is a cognitive triad of negative beliefs about oneself, the world & the future
• Cog. profile for anxiety reflects an excessive form of normal survival mehcanisms that’s expressed as unrealistic fears about physical & psychological threats.

CBT is referred to as “Collaborative Empiricism” bc of its emphasis on a collaborative relationship btwn therapist & client.

CBT therapists often use Socratic Dialogue (questioning) to help clients reach logical conclusions about probs. & their consequences.

Ex: Panic D/O stems from “catastrophic misinterpretations” of bodily sensations & mental exp. in 1st few sessions of Tx focus on clarifying the nature of the CT’s Sx’s & how s/he misinterprets them.

Question 44

Self-Instructional Training (SIT)

Answer 44

(Meichenbaum & Goodman, 1971) CBT Technique in which the indiv. learns to modify maladaptive thoughts & behaviors through the use of covert self-statements. Classified as a self-control technique bc involves teaching the indiv. to modify own behaviors thru use of self-statements.

Orig. devel. to help impulsive & hyperactive children slow down their behaviors & guide themselves through academic and other type of tasks.

Used to teach ppl to make positive & helpful self-statements when encounter problematic situations.

5 Steps:

1. Cognitive Modeling: A model performs the task while making self-statments aloud (Instructions on how to do the task & self-reinforcing comments)
2. Cognitive Participant Modeling: The CT performs the task while the model verbalizes instructions.
3. Overt Self-Instruction: The CT performs the task while instructing him/herself aloud.
4. Fading Overt Self-Instruction: The CT whispers instructions to him/herself while performing task.
5. Covert Self-Instruction: The CT performs the task while saying the instructions w/out sound.

Question 45

Stress Inoculation

Answer 45

A CBT technique that is used to help individuals cope w/stressful and other aversive states by enhancing their coping skills. It consists of three overlapping phases:

1. *Cognitive Preparation (Conceptualization):* Ed/help CT understand behavior & log response to stresful situations.
2. *Skills Acquisitions & Rehearsal:* CT learns & reherses a variety of coping skills.
3. *Application & Follow Through:* CT applies coping skills acquired to imagined, filmed & in-vivo stress producing situations.

Question 46

Self-Control Therapy/Model (Rehm)

Answer 46

A brief form of therapy that is based on the assumption that deficits in 3 aspects of self-control increase a person’s vulnerability to depression & make it difficult to deal effectively w/depressive Sx’.

There are 6 processes that involve 3 areas of self-control:

1. Self-monitoring,
2. Self-evaluation,
3. Self-reinforcement.

Question 47

Behavioral Model/Lewinsohn

Answer 47

Lewinsohn’s behavioral model attributes depression to a low rate of response-contingent reinforcement due to inadequate reinforcing stimuli in the environment and/or the individual’s lack of skill in obtaining reinforcement.

Question 48

Biofeedback

Answer 48

Biofeedback provides the individual with immediate and continuous feedback about an ongoing physiological process (e.g. muscle tension, blood pressure) with the goal enabling the individual to exercise voluntary control over that process. For many disorders (e.g., hypertension, tension headaches), relaxation is about equally effective as biofeedback. However, thermal biofeedback is a treatment-of-choice for Raynaud’s disease, and thermal biofeedback plus autogenic training is an effective treatment for migraine headaches.

Question 49

Information-Processing Model

(Sensory Memory, STM, LTM)

Answer 49

The information processing (multi-store) model describes memory as consisting of 3 separate, but interacting, stores:

1. Sensory Memory (Sensory Register): Seems to be capable of storing a great deal of information, but the information is retained for no more than a few seconds. Information in sensory memory is transferred to STM when it becomes the focus of attention. (.5-2 secs)
   
   • Iconic Memory (Memory for visual images/icons)
2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds a limited amount of info., & w/out rehearsal, info. begins to fade w/in 30 seconds. Info. is likely to be transferred from STM to LTM when it is encoded, especially when encoding involves elaborative rehearsal (relating new information to existing information). Capacity 7 digits =/- 2 digits/chunck of info.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): The capacity of LTM seems to be unlimited.
   
   • Procedural Memory: Memory for knowing how.
   • Declarative Memory: Memory for knowin that/what & includes:
     
     • Semantic Memory: Memory for gen. knowledge that is indep. of any context
     • Episodic Memory: Memory for personally exp. events.
       
       • Flashbulb Memory: Very detailed moemories of events that elicited suprise, fear or other strong emotion.

Question 50

Echoic Memory

Answer 50

Refers to the auditory sensory memory

Question 51

Iconic Memory

Answer 51

An Aspect of sensory memory & refers to memory for visual images (icons).

Question 52

Flashbulb Memory

Answer 52

Vivid memories of suprising, emotional events

Question 53

Serial Position Effect

Answer 53

Research on the serial position effect has found that, when people are asked to recall a list of unrelated items immediately after reading the list, the items in the beginning & end of the list are recalled much better than those in the middle.

• “primacy effect” occurs because items in the beginning of the list have already been rehearsed & stored in long-term memory,
• “recency effect” occurs because items at the end of the list are still in short-term memory.

Question 54

Levels-of-Processing Model

Answer 54

Proposes that differences in memory are not due to different stores or stages but to different levels of processing. The model distinguishes between 3 levels:

1. Structural: (Physical) During memorization focus is on structural or physical properties & info. is processed in terms of what it looks like.
2. Phonemic: (Acoustic/Sound) Info. is processed in terms of what it sounds like. Ex: What does the word rhyme with?
3. Semantic: Info. is process in terms of meaning of the words.
   
   • The is thesemantic level deepest level of processing & leads to the best retention.
   • Elaborative rehersal involves encoding info. at the semantic level.

Iconic Memory - An Aspect of sensory memory & refers to memory for visual images (icons).

Question 55

Procedural versus Declarative Memory

Answer 55

Long-term memory is conceptualized as consisting of procedural and declarative components:

• Procedural Memory: stores information about how to do things (“learning how”).
• Declarative Memory: mediates the acquisition of facts and other information (“learning that or what”) & is subdivided into semantic and episodic memory:
  
  • Semantic memory includes memories for general knowledge that is independent of any context and is responsible for the storage of facts, rules, and concepts;
  • Episodic memory consists of information about events that have been personally experienced.

Question 56

Prospective Memory

Answer 56

Prospective memory is considered by some researchers to be an aspect of long-term memory and is responsible for the ability to “remember to remember” (e.g., to remember a future appointment).

Question 57

Multi-Component Model/Baddeley and Hitch

Answer 57

According to the multi-component model, working memory consists of a:

• Central executive (The primary component of working memory & acts as an “attentional control system”) &
• 3 subsystems:
  
  • The phonological loop,
  • The visuo-spatial sketchpad
  • The episodic buffer

The central executive is the primary component of working memory and serves as an “attentional control system.” It’s responsible for directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information, and coordinating the three subsystems.

Question 58

Trace Decay Theory

Answer 58

Trace decay theory proposes that loss of memory (forgetting) is due to the gradual decay of memory traces (engrams) over time as the result of disuse.

Forgetting due to pasage of time

Question 59

Interference Theory

(Retroactive & Proactive Interference)

Answer 59

Proposes that forgetting occurs when materials interfere w/the storage or retrieval process.

2 Types:

• Retroactive: occurs when recently learned information interferes w/the recall of previously learned info & most likely to occur when subsequent & prior learning are similar in terms of content. (Backward in time)
• Proactive: occurs when previously learned material interferes w/the learning or ability to recall similar, more recently learned material. (Forward future)

Question 60

State Dependent Learning

Answer 60

Research on state-dependent learning has shown that recall of information tends to be better when the learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall.

Question 61

Elaborative Rehersal

Answer 61

Info. most likely to be trans from STM to LTM when elaborative rehersal is employed

When new info. is made more meaningful by relating it to existing knowledge stored in LTM.

This type of rehersal is more effective in terms of retention & recall.

Question 62

Maintenance Rehersal

Answer 62

Refers to rote repetion & is not very effective

Question 63

Mnemonic Devices (Method of Loci, Keyword Method, Acronym, Acrostic)

Answer 63

Mnemonic devices are formal strategies for improving memory.

• The Method of Loci: is a mnemonic that employs imagery in which items to be remembered are mentally placed, one by one, in pre-memorized (familiar) locations; and recall involves mentally “walking through” the location and retrieving the items.
• Keyword Method: is another imagery technique and is useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked.

Acronyms & Acrostics are verbal mnemonics that are both useful for memorizing a list of words or phrases.

• Acronym: is a word that’s formed using the first letter of each item
• Acrostic: is a phrase or rhyme that is constructed from the first letter of each word.

Question 64

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Answer 64

The Yerkes-Dodson law predicts that moderate levels of arousal are associated with optimal learning and performance so that the relationship between arousal and learning takes the shape of an inverted-U.

Question 65

Arbitrary Inference

Answer 65

Arbitrary inference (Beck) is a cognitive distortion that involves drawing a conclusion that is made in the absence of supporting evidence or in the presence of contradictory evidence.

Question 66

Personalization

Answer 66

Personalization a cognitive distortion that involves mistakenly viewing oneself as the source of an event that actually had another cause.

Question 67

Mustabatory Thinking

Answer 67

“Mustabatory thinking” (Ellis) and refers to the belief that certain conditions must be met. Ex: “I must be liked by everyone; if not, I’m a terrible person.”

Question 68

Covert Sensitization

Answer 68

Type of Aversive counterconditioning that is used to eliminate an undesirable behavior that prod. a pleasant or positive response (e.g., sexual arousal) by pairing stimuli assoc. w/that behavior w/stimuli that prod. an unplesant response.

By doing so, the plesant response is replaced by the unplesant response & the behavior is reduced or eliminated.

To eliminate the undesirable behavior the indiv. imagines an unplesant (aversive) consequence while imagining that s/he is engaging in the behavior.

Question 69

Distributed Practice for Learning New Material

Answer 69

Distributing study time over several study sessions results in better retention.

Question 70

Massed Practice for Learning New Material

Answer 70

Studying all material in a single study session reduces retention.

Question 71

Contingency Management

Answer 71

(Behavioral Technique) “Contingency” refers to the consequences of a behavior, and contingency management involves identifying & applying punishment for undesirable behaviors & identifying & applying reinforcements for desirable ones.

ID alt. behaviors to replace targeted undesirable behaviors.

Question 72

Pseudoconditioning

Answer 72

Occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response due to the accidental pairing of the stimulus w/another stimulus that evokes that response or when repeated exposure to a US increases the likelihood that the indiv. will respond to a neutral stimulus w/a response similar to the UR.

Question 73

Recognition Memory

Answer 73

Refers to the ability to recall info. from long-term memory when given the appropriate cues.

Question 74

Superstitious Behaviors

Answer 74

The coincidental assoc. of a response w/reinforcement.

Skinner found that whatever response pigeons happened to be making before food was delivered to them caused them to engage in compulsive repitition of that response.

• He concluded that the accidental pairing of a response w/reinforcement can explain the acquisition of superstitious behaviors in humans.

Question 75

Use of which of the following provided Broadbent (1958) with support for his filter theory of attention?
A. dismantling strategy
B. Stroop test
C. dichotic listening task
D. speeded-target monitoring task

Answer 75

C. dichotic listening task

Broadbent (1958) argued that info. from all of the stimuli presented at any given time enters a sensory buffer. 1 of the inputs is then selected on the basis of its physical characteristics for further processing by being allowed to pass through a filter. Bc we have only a limited capacity to process info., this filter is designed to prevent the info.-processing system from becoming overloaded. The inputs not initially selected by the filter remain briefly in the sensory buffer, and if they are not processed they decay rapidly.

Broadbent’s filter theory was the first of the “bottleneck” theories of attention.

Broadbent wanted to see how people were able to focus their attention (selectively attend), and to do this he deliberately overloaded them with stimuli - they had too many signals, too much information to process at the same time.

One of the ways Broadbent achieved this was by simultaneously sending one message (a 3-digit number) to a person’s right ear and a different message (a different 3-digit number) to their left ear. Participants were asked to listen to both messages at the same time and repeat what they heard. This is known as a ‘dichotic listening task’.

Support for Broadbent’s theory was provided by research using the dichotic listening task in which participants listened to speech sounds presented to each ear simultaneously.

Broadbent concluded that we can pay attention to only one channel at a time - so his is a single channel model.

In the dichotic listening task each ear is a channel. We can listen either to the R ear (that’s one channel) or the L ear (that’s another channel). Broadbent also discovered that it is difficult to switch channels more than twice a second. So you can only pay attention to the message in one ear at a time - the message in the other ear is lost, though you may be able to repeat back a few items from the unattended ear. This could be explained by the short-term memory store which holds onto information in the unattended ear for a short time.