Social Psychology Flashcards
Actor-Observer Effect
In causal attribution, the tendency for an observer to overestimate the effects of dispostional factors when making attributions about an actor’s behavior but to overestimate the effects of situational factors when making self-attributions
Attitude Inoculation
A method for reducing the effectiveness of a persuasive message that is based on the medical model. It involves giving the recipient of the message arguments against his/her own position and weak counterarguments (refutations against those arguments)
Autokinetic Effect
Sherif used the autokinetic effect (a perceptual phenomenon in which a stationary point of light appears to move in a darkened room) to study conformity to group norms.
Balance Theory
Balance theory uses the principle of cognitive consistency to explain attitude change and focuses on the relations among three entities- the person (P), another person (O), and a third person, idea, event, or object (X). It proposes that the relations may be balanced or unbalanced, depending on the pattern of likes and dislikes among the entities
Barnum Effect
The tendency to accept vague, general descriptions of oneself (e.g. a horoscope) as accurate
Base Rate Fallacy
The tendency to underutilize or ignore relevant statistical (base rate) data and to rely, instead, on irrelevant information when making probabilistic judgments about an event or characteristic.
Bases of Social Power
French and Raven identified six bases of social power that induce compliance in another person: coercive, reward, expert, legitimate, referent, and informational
Bystander Apathy
refers to the tendency of people to not intervene in emergency situations when others are present. It has been attributed to three factors: social comparison, evaluation apprehension, and diffusion of responsibility.
Catharsis Hypothesis
Predicts that an act of aggression reduces an individual’s arousal level which then decreases the likelihood that he/she will act aggressively again in the near future. The research has not been supportive of this claim.
Characteristics of the Communication
Several characteristics of a communication affect its persuasiveness: e.g. the level of discrepancy between the positions of the recipient and the message, the order in which the two sides of an argument are presented (primary/recency effects), and whether the message is intentionally delivered or is overheard.
Characteristics of the Communicator
Research on attitude change has confirmed that credible communicators are more persuasive and that one factor that contributes to credibility is trustworthiness (e.g. if the person is arguing against his/her own best interests, the person may seem more trustworthy.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory proposes that inconsistencies in cognitions produce discomfort (dissonance) that motivates the individual to reduce the dissonance by changing his/her cognitions
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to seek or pay attention to information that confirms one’s hypothesis or current beliefs and to ignore disconfirming information
Contact Hypothesis
Proposes that prejudice may be reduced through contact between members of majority and minority groups as long as the following conditions are met:
- Members of different groups have equal status and power
- Members are provided with opportunities that disconfirm negative stereotypes about members of the other group
- Intergroup cooperation is necessary to achieve mutual (superordinate goals).
Deindividuation Model
A state of relative anonymity that allows an individual to feel unidentifiable. It has been associated with increases in antisocial behavior, apparently because of the deindividuated person’s behavior is no longer controlled by guilt, fear of evaluation, or other inhibitory controls
Effects of Crowding
Crowded conditions tend to enhance positive experiences and increase the unpleasantness of negative experiences. Men seem to be more stressed by crowded conditions than women and are more likely to react with increased aggressiveness, apparently because men require more personal space
Effects of Media Violence
The research has generally confirmed that viewing media violence increases aggression by providing viewers with models for aggressive behavior. In addition, media violence can affect attitudes as well as behavior- e.g. frequent viewing of media violence has been linked to a tendency to overestimate the likelihood that one will be a victim of violence
Effects of Pornography
Studies investigating the effects of pornography has shown that, while exposure to mild erotica may reduce aggressiveness, exposure to pornography with violent themes tends to increase aggressive behaviors toward women as well as increase acceptance of rape myths and the adoption of callous attitudes toward sexual violence
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
ELM is a cognitive theory of attitude change that distinguishes between two information processing routes: central and peripheral. Use of the central route is likely when the listener’s motivation is high, the listener has the ability to process the information contained in the message, and/or the listener is in a neutral or slightly negative mood. Use of the peripheral route is likely when the listener is unmotivated, the listener lacks the ability to process the information, and/or the listener is in a positive mood.
Emotion-in-Relationship Model
The model of emotion provides an explanation for the experience of strong emotions in close relationships and proposes that there is an innate mechanism that generates emotion in response to unexpected events that disrupt ongoing sequences of behaviors.
Epineprine Studies (Schachter & Singer)
The epinephrine studies supported the predictions of self-perception theory by confirming that, when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, people acquire information about themselves by observing their external behaviors and/or the context in which those behaviors occur
Equity Theory
Predicts that motivation (e.g. motivation to remain in a relationship) is affected by a comparison of the input/outcome ratios of oneself and one’s partner
Field Theory
Lewin’s field theory describes human behavior as being a product of interdependent factors in the person and his or her physical and social environment
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
This hypothesis proposes that aggression is motivated by frustration, and a revised version predicts that frustration leads to aggression in the presence of aggressive cues.
Fundamental Attribution Biase
The tendency for an observer to overestimate dispositional causes and underestimate situational causes when making attributions about an actor’s behavior
Gain-Loss Effect
Predicts that people tend to be most attracted to individuals who show increasing liking for them and to be least attracted to individuals who show decreasing liking in them
Gender Differences in Affiliation
research has shown that women generally spend more time than men engaged in conversation, are more likely to talk to people of the same gender, and may affiliate more than men do in public places
Hardiness
Research by Kobasa et al. (1982) found that the personality trait of hardiness acts as a protective factor against stress and has three primary characteristics: commitment ( a sense of purpose and involvement in one’s relationships and life events); challenge (an openness to new experiences and change); and control (the belief that one has the ability to influence or manage life events).
Heuristics
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that people use when making attributions and other so social judgments and include the representativeness, availability, simulation, and anchoring and adjustment heuristics. Although heuristics allow us to reach conclusions quickly, they may result in errors.
Intraindividual Conflict
Lewin (1931) and Miller (1944) distinguished between four intraindividual (motivational ) conflicts:
- approach-approach
- avoidance-avoidance
- approach-avoidance
- double approach-avoidance
Of these, the double approach-avoidance (which occurs when we have to choose between two goals that both have positive and negative qualities) is the most difficult type to resolve
Jigsaw Method
a method of learning in which assignments must be completed by teams with each team member being assigned a different piece of the project. It has been found to improve intergroup relations, cooperation, and self-esteem as well as academic achievement, especially for members of minority groups
Law of Attraction (Byrne)
According to Byrne’s (1971) law of attraction, we are attracted to others who have similar attitudes because interactions with those individuals is more rewarding than interacting with people who have dissimilar attitudes and is, therefore, more likely to generate positive affect
Levels of Racism
Several investigators argue, to understand the effects of racism, it is necessary to recognize that it operates on multiple levels. These levels may be categorized as cultural, institutional, interpersonal, and internalized
Minority Influence
The research shows that a minority can influence the majority by maintaining a consistent (but not dogmatic) position
Misery loves miserable company
Schachter concluded that people like to affiliate most with others who are in similar circumstances (anxious people prefer to affiliate with other anxious people)
Obedience to authority (Milgram)
Milgram’s famous and controversial studies evaluated participants’ willingness to obey the direct order or command of a high-status individual (authority) even when doing so seemed to harm another person
Overjustification Hypothesis
Predicts that, when people are externally rewarded for a task they previously found intrinsically interesting, their intrinsic interest in the task will decrease
Prison Study (Zimbardo)
Zimbardo’s prison simulation study demonstrated that people alter their behaviors to fit their assigned roles
Psuedopatient Study (Rosenhan)
Rosenhan’s pseudopatient study demonstrated the effects of the social context on impression formation. Once admitted to a mental hospital, the pseudopatients were viewed, especially b hospital staff, as being schizophrenic even though they did not exhibit any abnormal behaviors
Psychological Reactance
The tendency to resist being influenced or manipulated by others, usually by doing the opposite of what is expected or requested
Robber’s Cave Study (Sherif)
Sherif’s research with boys at a summer camp demonstrated that the most effective ways to reduce intergroup hostility is having the members of the groups cooperate to achieve a mutual (superordinate) goal
Schemata
Schemata (schemas) are cognitive structures that organize past information and experience and provide a framerwork for processing and understanding new information and experiences
Self-Monitoring
Refers to the need for and ability to manage the impression that others form of us
High self-monitors are most concerned about their “public self” and consequently, strive to match their attitudes and behavior to the situation
In contrast, low self-monitors are guided primarily by their own beliefs and values and attempt to alter the situation to match their “private self”
Self-perception theory
Predicts that people make attributions about their own attitudes and behaviors on the basis of observations of their behaviors and other external cues
Self-serving bias
Refers to the tendency to attribute our own successes to dispositional (internal) factors and failures to situational (external) factors
Self-verification theory
Predicts that people prefer to receive feedback from others that is consistent with their own self-evaluations
Social comparison theory
Predicts that people use other (usually similar) people are sources of comparison to evaluate their own attitudes and behaviors
Social exchange theory
Predicts that a person’s decision to leave a relationship depends on the relationship’s costs and rewards (i.e. a person is likely to stay in a relationship when rewards exceed costs but leave when costs are greater than rewards)
Social learning theory
Predicts that learning can occur simply by observing the behavior of a model. It has been used to explain the acquisition of aggressive behaviors (e.g. the effects of media violence)
Social judgment theory
Predicts that people have three categories of judgment by which they evaluate persuasive messages:
- a latitude of acceptance
- a latitude of non-commitment
- a latitude of rejection
and that people are most likely to be persuaded when the message is within their latitude of acceptance
Superordinate Goals
can be achieved only when individuals or members of different groups work together cooperatively and have been found useful for reducing intergroup conflict
Symbolic racism
Sears et al. propose that the symbolic (modern) racism has gradually taken the place of “old fashioned” racism and that symbolic racists believe that African Americans and other minorities violate such traditional American values as individualism, self-reliance, and work ethic. They also deny their prejudice and attribute the social and economic problems of minority group members to internal factors (e.g. a lack of effort or discipline)
Theory of Planned Behavior
Predicts that attitudes are accurate predictors of behavior when the attitude measure assesses all three components of the behavioral intention- the person’s attitude toward engaging in the behavior, what the person believes the other people think he or she should do, and the person’s perceived behavioral control
Zeigarnik Effect
the tendency to remember interrupted and unfinished tasks better than completed ones, especially in non-stressful situations
