Physiological Psychology & Pharmacology

Question 1

Amygdala and Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

Answer 1

The amygdala is a substructure of the limbic system and is involved in the control of emotional activities, including the mediation of defensive-aggressive behaviors and the attachment of emotions to memories.

Bilateral lesions in the amygdala and temporal lobes of primates produces:

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome- characterized by reduced fear and aggression, increased docility and compulsive oral exploratory behaviors, altered dietary habits, hypersexuality, and “psychic blindness” (an inability to recognize the significance or meaning of events or objects

Question 2

Anticholinergic Effects

Answer 2

Caused by several drugs including the antipsychotics and tricyclic antidepressants; include:

• dry mouth
• blurred vision
• tachycardia (rapid heart rate)
• urinary retention
• constipation
• memory impairment
• confusion

Question 3

Aphasia

Answer 3

Impairments in the production and/or comprehension of language

1. Broca’s Aphasia- produced by damage to Broca’s area. Involves difficulty in producing written or spoken language with little or no trouble in understanding language and often includes anomia and impaired repetition
2. Wernicke’s Aphasia- caused by damage to Wernicke’s area. Characterized by an inability to comprehend written or spoken language along with the production of rapid, seemingly effortless speech that is lacking in content and may include anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition.
3. Conduction Aphasia- produced by damage to the arcuate fasciculus; does not significantly affect language comprehension, but does result in anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition

Question 4

Atypical Antipsychotics (Clozapine)

Answer 4

Clozapine and other atypical (newer) antipsychotic drugs affect receptors for several neurotransmitters including dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate. These drugs are effective for both the positive and negative symptoms of Schizophrenia and are less likely to produce tardive dyskinesia than the traditional antipsychotics. However, they can produce agranulocytosis and other blood dyscrasias as well as neuroleptic malignant syndrome.

Question 5

Autonomic Nervous System (Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches)

Answer 5

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the peripheral nervous system and is involved in the control of visceral functions (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sweating). Consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous branches:

• Sympathetic system is involved in the mediation of flight or fight reactions. Activation of the sympathetic branch produces increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar, and inhibition of the digestive processes
• Parasympathetic branch- involved in the conservation of energy and relaxation; activation is associated with slowing of heart rate, lowered blood pressure, contraction of pupils, reduction of sweat gland output, and increased activity of the digestive system

Question 6

Basal Ganglia

Answer 6

The basal ganglia are subcortical structures (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra) that are involved in planning, organizing, and coordinating voluntary movements

Basal ganglia pathology has been linked to Huntington’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, Tourette’s Disorder, OCD, and ADHD

Question 7

Beta-Blockers (Propranolol)

Answer 7

Propranolol and other beta-blockers block or diminish the cardiovascular excitatory response to the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine

• used to treat cardiovascular disorders, glaucoma, and migraine headache and are also useful for reducing the physical symptoms of anxiety

Common side effects of propranolol include bradycardia, nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, decreased sexual ability, and trouble sleeping

Question 8

Brain Lateralization/Split-Brain Patients

Answer 8

Left (dominant) hemisphere- dominates in verbal activities (spontaneous speaking and writing, word recognition, memory for words and numbers), analytical, logical thought, and positive emotional states

Right (non-dominant) hemisphere- dominates in visual-spatial activities such as facial recognition, spatial interpretation, and memory for shapes and in negative emotions

Specialization of the two hemispheres is referred to as brain lateralization and was initially studied in split-brain patients, whose corpus callosums had been severed to control severe epilepsy

Question 9

Cerebellum and Ataxia

Answer 9

Cerebellum- large structure on the dorsal aspect of the hindbrain; involved in the extrapyramidal control of motor activities (coordination, balance, posture).

Damage can result in ataxia, which is characterized by slurred speech, severe tremors, and a loss of balance

Question 10

Cerebral Ventricles/Hydrocephalus

Answer 10

The ventricles are the four cavities of the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid. Blockage of the ventricles and a resulting build-up of fluid can cause hydrocephalus.

Question 11

Cerebrovascular Accident

Answer 11

Cerebrovascular accident (CVS) is also referred to as cerebral stroke and refers to brain damage that occurs when a blood clot or other obstruction or hemorrhage disrupts the flow of blood to the brain.

Common symptoms include:

• contralateral hemiplegia
• hemianesthestia involving the face, arm, and leg
• contralateral visual field loss

Question 12

Contralateral Representation

Answer 12

For most sensory and motor functions, the cortex exhibits contralateral representation, which means that the left hemisphere controls the functions of the right side of the body and vice-versa

Question 13

Corupus Callosum

Answer 13

The right and left hemispheres are connected by several bundles of fibers, the largest of which is the corpus callosum. If the corpus callosum is severed, the two hemispheres operate essentially as separate , independent brains

Question 14

Depth Perception/Retinal Disparity

Answer 14

Depth perception depends on a combination of binocular and monocular cues. Retinal disparity is a binocular cue and refers to the fact that our two eyes see objects in the world from two different views; and the closer an object, the greater the disparity of the two images

Question 15

Dopamine Hypothesis

Answer 15

According to the dopamine hypothesis, Schizophrenia is due to overactivity at dopamine receptors either as the result of oversensitivity of the receptors or excessive dopamine levels

Question 16

Effects of Psychoactive Drugs

Answer 16

Terms used to describe the effects of the psychoactive drugs outside the following:

1. Agonists produce effects similar to those produced by a neurotransmitter
2. Inverse agonists produce an effect opposite the effect produced by a neurotransmitter or an agonist
3. Partial agonists produce effects that are similar to (but less than) the effects produced by a neurotransmitter or an agonist
4. Antagonists produce no activity in the cell on their own but, instead, reduce or block the effects of a neurotransmitter or agonist

Question 17

Emotion (Areas of the Brain)

Answer 17

Areas of the brain that have been implicated in the regulation of emotion include the amygdala (which plays a role in the perception and expression of anger, fear, sadness, happiness, and other emotions and attaches emotion to memories), the hypothalamus (which is involved in the translation of emotions into physical responses), and the cerebral cortex. With regard to the latter, the left hemisphere governs happiness and other positive emotions, while the right hemisphere mediates sadness, fear, and other negative emotions

Question 18

Frontal Lobe & Broca’s Area/Prefrontal Cortex

Answer 18

Frontal lobe occupies the major portion of the cortex and includes the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, premotor cortex

Involved in initiative, planning ability, abstract thinking, and other executive functions; personality and mood; and motor functions

Damage to Broca’s area produces Broca’s expressive aphasia

Damage to the prefrontal cortex produces personality changes and deficits in higher-level cognitive abilities

Question 19

Gate Control Theory of Pain

Answer 19

According to the gate-control theory, there are mechanisms in the spinal cord that mediate (block) the perception of pain

Question 20

General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 20

According to Selye, the human response to stress is mediated by adrenal-pituitary secretions (cortisol) and involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion

This model predicts that prolonged stress can result in illness or death

Question 21

Hippocampus

Answer 21

The hippocampus is a limbic system structure that is important for spatial and explicit memory and the consolidation of declarative memories

Question 22

Huntington’s Disease

Answer 22

An inherited degenerative disease that is transmitted by a single autosomal dominant gene and involves emotional, cognitive, and motor symptoms. For many patients, emotional and cognitive symptoms appear first and include depression, apathy, anxiety, antisocial tendencies, and forgetfulness

Early motor symptoms include fidgeting, and clumsiness, which are followed by facial grimaces and “piano-playing” movements of the fingers. Huntington’s disease is believed to be due to a loss of GABA-secreting neurons and glutamate excitotoxicity in the basal ganglia, especially in the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus

Question 23

Hypertension

Answer 23

There are two types of hypertension.

Primary (essential) hypertension is diganosed when high blood pressure is not due to a known physiological cause, while secondary hypertension is diagnosed when elevated blood pressure is related to a known disease. Primary hypertension accounts for about 85-90% of all cases of high blood pressure; untreated, it can lead to cardiovascular disease, and it is a major cause of heart failure, kidney failure, and stroke. The prevalence of hypertension is related to age, race, and gender. Older adults have higher rates than younger adults, and African Americans have higher rates than Whites. Although the rates are generally higher for men, among older adults and AA women, they are higher for women

Question 24

Hyper- and Hypothyroidism

Answer 24

Hyperthyroidism is caused by the hypersecretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland and is characterized by a speeded-up metabolism, elevated body temperature, accelerated heart rate, increased appetite: with weight loss, nervousness, and insomnia

Hypothyroidism is caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine and involves a slowed metabolism, slowed heart rate, lethargy, lowered body temperature, impaired concentration and memory, and depression

Question 25

Hypoglycemia

Answer 25

Hypoglycemia (low blood glucose) is caused by excessive secretion of insulin by the pancreas and is characterized by hunger, dizziness, headaches, blurred vision, palpitations, anxiety, depression, and confusion

Question 26

Hypothalamus and Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Answer 26

The hypothalamus consists of a cluster of nuclei that control the autonomic nervous system and endocrine glands, mediate basic drives, and regulate emotional expression

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which is located in the hypothalamus, is involved in the regulation of the body’s circadian rhythms

Question 27

Learning and Memory (Areas of the Brain)

Answer 27

Areas of the brain involved in learning and memory include the following:

1) The temporal lobes are essential for the encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories
2. The hippocampus is responsible for the consolidation of long-term declarative memories (transferring information form short-term to long-term memory)
3. The amygdala plays a key role in fear conditioning, learning about rewards and punishments, and adding emotional significance to memories
4. The prefrontal cortex has been implicated in short-term memory, episodic memory, and prospective memory
5. The thalamus is involved in processing information and transferring it to the neocortex

Question 28

Learning and Memory (Neural Mechanisms)

Answer 28

Neural mechanisms that are believed to mediate long-term memory include long-term potentiation and protein/rNA synthesis

1) Long term potentiation (LTP) is a physiological process involving the modification of nerve synapses, especially at glutamate receptors in the hippocampus
2. Inhibiting the synthesis of protein or RNA at the time of learning prevents the formation of long-term memories

Question 29

MAOIs and Hypertensive Crisis

Answer 29

The MAOIs are antidepressants that work by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which is involved in deactivating dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin

The most dangerous side effect is hypertensive crisis, which can occur when an MAOI is taken in conjunction with barbiturates, amphetamines, antihistamines, or certain other drugs, or with food containing the amino acid tyramine (aged cheeses and meats, beer, red wine, chicken liver, avocados, bananas, fava beans)

Symptoms of a hypertensive crisis include: severe headache, stiff neck, rapid heart rate, nausea, vomiting, sweating, and sensitivity to light

Question 30

Medulla

Answer 30

The medulla is a hindbrain structure that controls the flow of information between the spinal cord and brain and regulates a number of vital functions including breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure

Question 31

Menopause Hormone Replacement Therapy

Answer 31

The decreased estrogen levels that accompany menopause produce a variety of emotional and physical symptoms including hot flashes, fatigue, mood swings, nausea, vagina dryness, and loss of bone mass; hormone replacement therapy (HRT) alters estrogen levels only or both estrogen and progesterone levels and is effective for eliminating hot flashes, mood swings, and vaginal dryness and reduces the risk for bone loss

Question 32

Methylphenidate

Answer 32

Methydphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, Metadate) is a psychostimulant drug used to treat ADHD in children and adults. Common side effects include decreased appetite, insomnia, dysphoria, and growth suppression

Question 33

Migraine Headache

Answer 33

A migraine headache is a recurrent vascular headache characterized by severe throbbing pain, usually on one side of the head. Triggers include certain foods, alcohol, bright lights, and relaxation following physical or psychological stress. A migraine may be preceded by an aura (classic migraine) or gastrointestinal or other symptoms (common migraine)

Question 34

Mood Stabilizing Drugs (Lithium, Anticonvulsant Drugs)

Answer 34

Mood stabilizing drugs are used to alleviate mania and mood swings in Bipolar Disorder and include lithium and anticonvulsants (e.g. carbamazepine). Lithium is usually the drug-treatment-of-choice for classic Bipolar Disorder, while an anticonvulsant drug may be more effective for patients who experience rapid mood swings or who have dysphoric mania

Question 35

Multiple Sclerosis

Answer 35

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive disease of the nervous system that involves a degeneration of the myelin that surrounds nerve fibers in the central nervous system. Common initial symptoms are optic neuritis, motor impairments, sensory abnormalities, and fatigue. Additional symptoms that arise as the disease progresses include tremors, speech problems, mood symptoms, and cognitive impairment

Question 36

Naltrexone

Answer 36

Naltrexone is an opioid antagonist that blocks the craving for and reinforcing effects of alcohol and is used to treatment Alcohol Abuse and Dependence. Side effects include abdominal cramping, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, nervousness, headache, and joint and muscle pain

Question 37

Narcotic Analgesics

Answer 37

The drugs classified as narcotic-analgesics (opioids) have both sedative and analgesic properties. Medically, the narcotic-analgesics are used for the same reasons they were used centuries ago- ie. analgesic, treatments for diarrhea, and cough suppressants. Chronic use of a narcotic analgesic results in tolerance and psychological and physical dependence. Withdrawal symptoms resemble those associated with a bad case of the flu.

Question 38

Neuroimaging Techniques

Answer 38

Neuroimaging techniques make it possible to study both the structure and function of the living brain. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are structural techniques. Positron-emission tomography (PET), single proton emission computed tomography (SPECT) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provide information on the functional activities of the brain

Question 39

Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome

Answer 39

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a rare, but potentially fatal side effect of the antipsychotic drugs. It involves a rapid onset of motor, mental, and autonomic symptoms including muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and altered consciousness. To avoid a potentially fatal outcome, the drug must be stopped as soon as symptoms of NMS develop.

Question 40

Neuron (Action Potential and All-Or-None Principle)

Answer 40

The neuron (nerve cell) is a specialized cell that is directly involved in mental processes and behavior. Messages within a neuron are transmitted from a neuron’s dendrites to the end of its axon through an electrical process called conduction. Within sufficient stimulant from other cells, a cell becomes depolarized (the interior of the cell becomes less negative), which triggers an action potential (an electrical impulse that travels quickly through the cell)

The all or none principle predicts that an action potential will always be of the same magnitude regardless of the amount of stimulation received by a neuron as long as the minimal level of stimulation (the threshold) has been reached.

Question 41

Neurotransmitters (Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Serotonin, , GABA)

Answer 41

Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that are released from axon terminals, diffuse across synapses, and excite or inhibits receptor sites on postynaptic nerve cells

1) Acetylcholine mediates neuromuscular transmission, parasympathetic arousal, and memory (memory loss in Alzheimers)
2) Dopamine is involved in the inhibitory motor regulation and motivational/emotional functions. Insufficient dopamine in the basal ganglia is believed to underlie Parkinson’s disease; excessive activity as dopamine receptors has been linked to Schizophrenia and Tourette’s Disorder
3) Serotonin ordinarily inhibits behavior and is involved in the regulation of mood, hunger, arousal, sleep, temperature, and pain and in the Bipolar and Depressive Disorders, Schizophrenia, and OCD
4) GABA is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter and is believed to be involved in anxiety, sleep, and seizures. Low levels of GABA in the motor region are associated with Huntington’s disease

Question 42

Occipital lobe and visual agnosia/prosopagnosia

Answer 42

The occipital lobe contains the visual cortex. Damage to the occipital lobe can result in visual agnosia (inability to recognize familiar objects), color agnosia, word blindness, and/or scotomas (blind spots), prosopagnosia (inability to recognize familiar faces)

Question 43

Papez’s Circuit

Answer 43

Was proposed as a brain mechanism (circuit) that mediates the experience and expression of emotion; includes the hippocampus, mammillary bodies, anterior nuclei of the thalamus, and cingulate gyrus

Question 44

Parietal Lobe and Apraxia/Anosognosia/Gerstmann’s Syndrome

Answer 44

The parietal lobe contains the somatosensory cortex. Depending on its location, damage to the parietal lobe can cause:
apraxia (inability to perform skilled motor movements in the absence of impaired motor functioning), or

anosognosia (inability to recognize one’s own neurological symptoms or other disorder) or

Gerstmann’s syndrome- which involves a combination of finger agnosia, right-left confusion, agraphia, and acalculia

Question 45

Postconcussional Syndrome

Answer 45

When using a DSM-5, a person with postconcussional syndrome would receive a diagnosis of Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Traumatic Brain Injury when the following criteria are met:

A) The person’s symptoms meet the criteria for Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder
B) There is evidence of a traumatic brain injury with at least one of the following:
- loss of consciousness
- posttraumatic amnesia
- disorientation and confusion
- and/or neurological signs
C) The neurocognitive disorder occurs immediately after the traumatic brain injury or immediately after recovery of consciousness and continues past the acute post-injury period

Question 46

Psychophysical Laws (Weber’s Law, Fechner’s Law, Steven’s Power Law)

Answer 46

The psychophysical laws attempt to predict the relationship between perception and sensation

1) Weber’s Law states that the just noticeable difference in stimulus intensity is a constant proportion of the initial stimulus intensity
2) Fechner’s law states that physical stimulus changes are logarithmically related to their psychological sensations.
3) Stevens’s Power Law proposes that the magnitude of a sensation is equal to the physical magnitude of the stimulus producing the sensation raised to a certain power (exponent) which varies, depending on the specific sensation being measured

Question 47

Reticular Activating System

Answer 47

The reticular activating system (RAS) is a network of nerve fibers involved in wakefulness, arousal, and consciousness

Question 48

Secondary Sex Characteristics/Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis

Answer 48

At puberty, an increase in gonadal hormones influences the emergence of secondary sex characteristics and the development of the reproductive system. Although the mechanisms that trigger the development of the secondary sex characteristics are not well understood, it occurs when the hypothalamus secretes chemicals that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland, which then releases the gonadotropic hormones that stimulate testosterone and sperm production by the testes or ovulation and estrogen production by the ovaries. This system is referred to as the hypothalamic-pituitary- gonadal axis

Question 49

Sedative-Hypnotics (Benzodiazepines)

Answer 49

The sedative hypnotics include the barbiturates, anxiolytics, and alcohol. These drugs are generalized CNS depressants, and their effects, for the most part, are dose dependent. At low doses, these drugs reduce arousal and motor activity; at moderate doses, they induce sedation and sleep; and at high doses, they can produce anesthesia, coma, and death. The benzodiazepines are a type of anxiolytic. Their side effects include drowsiness, ataxia, slurred speech, and other signs of CNS depression; abrupt cessation can cause rebound hyperexcitability. The benzodiazepines are the most commonly prescribed anxiolytic and are used to alleviate anxiety and treat sleep disturbances, seizures, cerebral palsy, and alcohol withdrawal. Common side effects include drowsiness, dizziness, lethargy, slurred speech, and impaired psychomotor ability. They can also produce paradoxical agitation, impaired sexual functioning, confusion, and sleep disturbances.

Question 50

Seizures (Tonic-Clonic, Absence, and Partial)

Answer 50

There are two main types of seizures.
1. Generalized seizures are bilaterally symmetrical and do not have a focal onset. Included in this category are tonic-clonic and absence seizures. Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures include a tonic stage in which the muscles contract and the body stiffens; a clonic stage that involves rhythmic shaking of the limbs; and postseizure depression or confusion with amnesia for the ictal event. Absence (petit mal) seizures are brief attacks involving a loss of consciousness without prominent motor symptoms.

2. Partial seizures begin in one side of he brain and affect one side of the body, at least initially but sometimes spread and become generalized seizures.

Question 51

Sexual dimorphism

Answer 51

Refers To sex-related differences in physical appearance, and the research has confirmed that the human brain is sexually dimorphic. Studies using structural brain imaging techniques have found sex-related differences in the size of specific regions of the brain including the corpus callosum, hippocampus, and the SCN

Question 52

Sleep (Stages, Effects of Age)

Answer 52

Sleep is divided into five stages on the basis of EEG pattern. During stage 1, alpha waves are replaced by theta waves. The stage 2 EEG record consists primarily of the theta waves that are interrupted by bursts of sleep spindles and K complexes. Large, slow delta waves appear during stage 3; and in stage 4, the “deep sleep” stage, delta waves dominate the EEG record. The fifth sleep stage is characterized by the presence of rapid eye movements and, consequently., is known as REM (dream sleep). Sleep patterns vary by age. In newborns, the sleep period begins with REM sleep which gradually changes to NREM sleep, but this pattern begins to reverse by about three months of age. In addition, total sleep time, stage 4 sleep, and REM sleep all decrease from childhood to adulthood.

Question 53

Somatic Nervous System

Answer 53

The somatic nervous system (SNS) consists of sensory nerves that carry information from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. The SNS governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary.

Question 54

Spinal Cord (Quadriplegia and Paraplegia)

Answer 54

The spinal cord carries information between the brain and the peripheral nervous system, coordinates activities of the left and right sides of the body, and controls simple reflexes that do not involve the brain. It consists of 31 segments, which are divided into five groups. From the top of the spinal cord to the bottom, these are: cervical, thoacic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal. Damage at the cervical level ordinarily results in quadriplegia (loss of sensory and voluntary motor functioning in the arms and legs), which damage at the thoracic level causes paraplegia (loss of functioning in the legs)

Question 55

SSRIs (Fluoxetine)

Answer 55

The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) are antidepressant drugs that exert their effects by blocking the reuptake of serotonin at serve synapses. Side effects include gastrointestinal disturbances, sexual dysfunction, insomnia, anxiety, headache, and anorexia. In comparison to the TCAs, the SSRIs are less cardiotoxic, safer in overdose, and less likely to produce cognitive impairments. Fluoxetine (Prozac) is one of the most widely-prescribed antidepressants but its use is surrounded by controversy due to evidence linking it to an increased risk for suicide.

Question 56

Synesthesia

Answer 56

“Joining senses”- a rare condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality triggers a sensation in another sensory modality. For example, a person with synesthesia might hear a color or taste a shape.

Question 57

Tardive Dyskinesia

Answer 57

A potentially irreversible extrapyramidal side effect associated with long-term use of traditional antipsychotic drugs. Symptoms include rhythmical, sterotyped movements of the muscles of the face, limbs, and trunk (similar to Huntington’s chorea). In some cases, symptoms are alleviated by a GABA agnoist or by gradual withdrawal of the drug

Question 58

Temporal Lobe and Wernicke’s Area

Answer 58

contains the primary auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area. Damage can result in auditory agnosia, cortical deafness, impairments in long-term memory, and/or Wernicke’s (Receptive) aphasia

Question 59

Thalamus and Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

Answer 59

The thalamus is a “relay station” for all of the senses except olfaction and is also involved in language and memory. Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome is due to a thiamine deficiency that causes atrophy of neurons in certain areas of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus and is usually the result of chronic alcoholism. It begins with Wernicke’s encephalopathy, which is characterized by mental confusion, abnormal eye movements, and ataxia; and is then followed by Korsakoff’s syndrome, which involves severe anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation.

Question 60

Theories of Color Vision (Trichromatic and Opponent Process)

Answer 60

There are two theories of color vision. According to the trichromatic theory, there are three types of color receptors that are each receptive to a different primary color (red, blue,or green). All other colors are produced by variations in the activity of these receptors. The opponent-process theory postulates three bipolar receptors: red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black. According to this theory, some cells are excited by red and inhibited by green, and so on; and the overall pattern of stimulation of these cells produces the various colors we perceive.

Question 61

Theories of Emotion (James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Cognitive Appraisal

Answer 61

The various theories of emotions differ in terms of their emphasis on the role of the peripheral and central factors.

1. James-Lange theory stresses the importance of peripheral factors and proposes that emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions to sensory stimuli.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory places greater emphasis on the bodily reactions to sensory stimuli. It proposes that emotional and bodily reactions to stimuli occur simultaneously as a result of thalamic stimulation of the cortex and the peripheral nervous system.
3. Lazarus’s cognitive appraisal theory proposes that emotions are universal but that there are differences in how emotion-arousing events are interpreted or appraised. It distinguishes between three types of cognitive appraisal- primary, secondary, and re-appraisal.

Question 62

Traditional Antipsychotics

Answer 62

The traditional antipsychotic drugs (e.g. phenothiazines) are used for the management of schizophrenia and other psychoses. They are most effective for positive symptoms (delusion, hallucinations, agitation, thought disorders). Side effects include anticholinergic, extrapyramidal effects, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. These drugs exert their beneficial effects primarily by blocking dopamine receptors, and their effectiveness provides support for the dopamine hypothesis which attributes schizophrenia to overactivity at dopamine receptors.

Question 63

Traumatic Brain Injury (Postraumatic Amnesia, Retrograde Amnesia)

Answer 63

TBI refers to an injury to the brain that is caused by an external force and involves temporary or permanent impairments in cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and/or physical functioning. It can be due to a closed or open-head injury. A closed-head injury usually causes an alteration or loss of consciousness followed by anterograde and retrograde amnesia.

Anterograde amnesia is referred to as posttraumatic amnesia and its duration is a good predictor of recovery.

Retrograde amnesia affects recent memories more than remote memories and, when long-term memories begin to return, the more remote memories return first.

Question 64

Tricyclics (Imipramine, Clomipramine)

Answer 64

The tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are believed to work by blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine, dopamine, and/or serotonin. They are most effective for alleviating somatic, vegetative symptoms. Side effects include anticholinergic effects, confusion, drowsiness, weight gain, and cardiovascular symptoms. Imipramine has also been found useful for treating enuresis, while clomipramine is an effective treatment for Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, Bulimia Nervosa, and OCD.

Question 65

Type A Behavior Pattern

Answer 65

People exhibiting Type A behavior pattern are highly competitive and achievement-oriented, have a sense of time urgency, and tend to be hostile, easily irritated, and impatient. A number of studies have confirmed that, of the Type A characteristics, cynical or antagonistic hostility is most strongly associated with health problems, especially coronary heart disease in males.