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Social Psychology > Social Psych Exam 3 > Flashcards

Social Psych Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Balance Theory

A

We are motivated to have attitudes be consistent to each other

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1
Q

What is the reason behind the balance theory?

A

The Gestalt Principles – we want to see things as a coherent whole

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2
Q

How to figure out if a balance triad is in balance

A

Multiply the signs

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3
Q

Cogntive dissonance

A

Aversive experince of inconsistency between two thoughts

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4
Q

cognitive dissonance theory

A

inconsistency is aversive, so people try to reduce dissonance to achieve consistency

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5
Q

What is the scope of balance thoery

A

Balance theory is about attitudes only

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6
Q

What is the scope of cognitive dissonance theory

A

Cognitive dissonance theory is broader, including beliefs & behavior

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7
Q

What is the cause of balance theory

A

Balance theory describes a motivation to obtain cognitive balance between attitudes & beliefs

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8
Q

What is the cause of cognitive dissonace theory

A

Cognitive dissonance theory describes an affective aversion that people are motivated to resolve.

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9
Q

When is cognitive dissonance likely

A
  1. Lack external reasons for our action (insufficient justification)
  2. Put effort into some outcome (effort justification)
  3. Made a choice for one thing over another (choice justification)
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10
Q

Insufficient Justification

A

When we lack sufficient external reason to explain why we did something, we intrinsically value that activity more

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11
Q

Effort Justification

A

We attribute more value to an outcome if we put more effort in obtaining that outcome (ex. hazing or boot camp)

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12
Q

Choice Justification

A

After making a choice between multiple options, we:
1. amplify the value of the choice we made
2. devalue the option(s) we didn’t choose

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13
Q

Beyond the 3 things, Cognitive dissonance is also more likely if

A

it’s self-relevant or if the inconsistency has negative consequences

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14
Q

4 ways to reduce cognitive dissonance

A

Change the belief
Change the behavior
Reinterpret with a related idea
reduce subjective imporatance

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15
Q

Self-perception theory

A

People infer their own attitudes and beliefs by observing their thoughts and behavior

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16
Q

Prosocial behavior

A

Any act performed with the goal of benefitting another person

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17
Q

Altruism

A

The desire to help another person even if it appears to involve a cost to the helper

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18
Q

3 motives for prosial behavior

A
  1. evolutionary psychology
  2. social exchange theory
  3. empathy-altruisim hypothesis
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19
Q

Evolutionary Psychology

A

The attempt to explain human thought and behavior in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time

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20
Q

Basic Tenets of Evolutionary Psychology

A

Genes are likely to be passed on if they:
increases chances of survival
increase chances of creating offspring
increases the survival of genetically related others

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21
Q

Kin Selection

A

Behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection
Increasing probability of the survival of blood relatives  increasing probability that their genes will be passed on

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22
Q

Norm of Reciprocity

A

The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood they will help us in the future

Evolution favors individuals who are good team players
Evolution favors groups whose members help each other

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23
Q

Empathy-Altruisim Hypothesis

A

When we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help regardless of what we have to gain

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24
Q

Social Exchange Theory

A

What we do stems from desire to maximize rewards and minimize costs

we help if rewards outweight the costs

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25
Q

Rewards in Social Exchange Theory

A

The norm of reciprocity: Someone will help us if we need it
Emotions
e.g., relief of distress, increased self-worth
External Rewards
e.g., reputation

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26
Q

What does the lecture notes study show?

A

Results: In the low empathy condition, the costs affected how much people were willing to help greatly. In the high empathy condition, people were willing to help regardless of the costs.

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27
Q

Bystander Effect

A

tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

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28
Q

Seizure Study results

A

85% of solo folks helped within a minute
100% within 2.5 minutes
62% of 2-person groups helped within a minute
85% after 6 minutes
31% of 5-person groups helped within a minute
62% after 6 minutes

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29
Q

What did the seminary student study show

A

Found that 63% stopped to help when not in a hurry and only 10% when they are in a hurry
Maybe because they weren’t paying attention

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30
Q

What are the steps of bystander intervention

A
  1. notice the event
  2. interpret as an emergency
  3. take responsibility
  4. know how to help
  5. decide to help
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31
Q

pluralistic ignorance

A

People privately reject a norm/belief
They perceive that other members of the group accept it.
This causes them to accept it as well.

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32
Q

What did the smoke filled room study show

A

Alone – 75% alerted experimenter in 6min
Groups – 38% alerted experimenter in 6min

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32
Q

Diffusion of Responsibility

A

each bystander’s sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses increases

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33
Q

Self-esteem

A

Evaluation of one’s own self-worth
An attitude toward one’s self

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34
Q

State self esteem

A

Situational evaluation of your self-worth
Susceptible to what’s happening right now

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35
Q

Trait self esteem

A

General evaluation of your self-worth
Your overall sense of how you’re doing

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36
Q

Central Features of Attitudes

A

Evaluative
Relatively enduring in nature
readiness to respond
learned from experience
represented in memory

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37
Q

What percent of people report lower than the midpoint in self-esteem

A

7%

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38
Q

High self esteem is related to

A

Better grades
Being more happy
Less stress
Living longer
More likely to start new relationships
Work harder when confronted with adversity

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39
Q

When does self esteem hit its peak

A

Age 51

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40
Q

Across cultures, who has higher self esteem and why

A

Across cultures, men/boys have higher self-esteem than women/girls

Potential causes:
Social roles
Sexism

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41
Q

Implicit Self-Esteem

A

Attitudes toward one’s self outside of conscious awareness or control
Weakly related to explicit self-esteem

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42
Q

What is the name letter effect

A

Liking things that share our first initial more

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43
Q

When did the self esteem movement start

A

The 1970s

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44
Q

Why did the 1986 self esteem initiave fail

A

Correlation does not equal causation!!
Instead self-esteem might be the effect of positive social living, rather than the cause

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45
Q

Sociometer Theory

A

Self-esteem is a psychological gauge of whether we are socially accepted by others
Included or excluded
Fitting in or not

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46
Q

Narrative Identity

A

Internalized and evolving story of the self.
Reconstructs the past
Anticipates the future
Provides unity, meaning, and purpose

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47
Q

Autobiographical Reasoning

A

Making conclusions about the self from analyzing one’s own experiences.

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48
Q

Disposition

A

Traits, stable behavioral characteristics

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49
Q

Values

A

Morality, right and wrong

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50
Q

Outlook

A

Attitudes, perspectives on the world

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51
Q

Personal Growth

A

Maturing, developing confidence & strength

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52
Q

Redemptive Narratives

A

Track the move from suffering to an enhanced status or state.
Common within the United States
Generally supports happiness & societal engagement
BUT…can lead to unrealistic expectations that future will be better

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53
Q

Rouge Test

A

The rouge test is a measure of self-concept; the child who touches the rouge on his own nose upon looking into a mirror demonstrates the basic ability to understand self-awareness.

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54
Q

Introspection

A

The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives

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55
Q

How is introspection limited

A

People do not rely on this source of information as often as you might think

Even when they do, the reasons for their feelings and behavior can be hidden from conscious awareness

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56
Q

Self Awareness Theory

A

The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values

we become objective evaluators of ourselves

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57
Q

What did the shock experiement show

A

people would rather give themselves shocks than sit by themselves with only their thoughts

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58
Q

Illusion of Transparency

A

People overestimate the degree to which their personal mental state is known to others
People think they appear more nervous than others actually report
In other words, we feel “see-through”, as though others can see our nervousness

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59
Q

Affective Forecasting

A

People’s predictions about their emotional reactions to future events

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60
Q

Impact Bias

A

We tend to overestimate the strength and duration of our emotional reactions

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61
Q

Social Comparsion

A

The process by which people compare their own characteristics to those of others

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62
Q

How many self comparisons do people make per week on average

A

10

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63
Q

Ways to compare ourselves against others

A

Similarity
Relationship Closeness
Relevance

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64
Q

Downward Social Comparison

A

Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are on a characteristic

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65
Q

Upward social comparsion

A

Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are on a characteristic

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66
Q

What did the role model study show

A

They found that relatability mattered a lot and that if the leader seemed relatable and attainable then you thought of yourself as a leader more

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67
Q

What is the main point of the role model study

A

For role models to motivate people, they should be percieved as relatable

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68
Q

Who should we compare ourselves to if we want accurate information

A

Similiar people

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69
Q

Bask in Reflected Glory (BIRG):

A

Associating ourselves with successful self-relevant people

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70
Q

Cut off Reflected Failure (CORF):

A

Distancing ourselves from low-status self-relevant people

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71
Q

Better than Average Effect

A

The tendency to overestimate your own desirable qualities & abilities relative to other people

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72
Q

What types of things is the better than average effect shown in

A

IQ
Memory
Academic performance
Driving ability
Health
Personality
Sociability
Popularity
Satisfaction with romantic relationship
Teaching ability
Leadership ability

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73
Q

Why do we tend to beleive we are better than average

A

Positive illusions, self-serving bias, & self-enhancement motives

74
Q

When is the better than average effect less likely to happen

A
  1. When the trait is more objective (grades on an exam)
  2. When the trait is seen as uncontrollable (ex. vision, hearing, etc.)
75
Q

Who is the most accurate perceptions of their own skills

A

***Intermediates are most accurate
Novices overestimate their skills
Experts underestimate their skills

76
Q

Dunning-kruger effect

A

Unskilled people are especially likely to overestimate their skill
High-skill people underestimate their skill

77
Q

Why does the dunning-kruger effect happen

A

We judge ourselves based on the markers of skill we know about

Low-skill people don’t know what they don’t know
Novices can’t recognize their own mistakes
Novices can’t recognize how others are acting more wisely

78
Q

The Curse of Knowledge

A

When an expert communicates with others, they assume that others have the background to understand them

79
Q

What does self-categorization lead to

A

Social Identity

80
Q

Is self categorization enduring or situational

A

situational!

81
Q

Optimal Distinctiveness Theory

A

People want to strike a balance between their group identities and their personal identities

82
Q

Emotions are specific to

A

an object and a point in time

83
Q

Emotion definition

A

A temporary mental state characterized by feelings of positivity or negativity toward a target

84
Q

Mood

A

A temporary mental state characterized by feelings of positivity or negativity without a specific target
Generally lasts longer than emotions
Generally more diffuse than emotions

85
Q

Valence

A

positive or negative

86
Q

Discrete Emotion Theory

A

There are a small number of basic emotions that are the same across cultures
Other emotions exist but are cultural variations on a basic emotion
E.g., ‘contentment’ is a variant of ‘joy’

87
Q

What is the consequence of the discrete emotion theory

A

Emotions are embodied & manifest in unique patterns of facial expression, behavior, and arousal

88
Q

Constructive emotion theory

A

Emotions are actively constructed from experiences of valence (i.e., good/bad), arousal, and the appraisal of that valence/arousal

89
Q

Evidence against discrete emotion theory

A

Emotion do not correlate well across physiology, facial expression, subjective experience, & behavior

–> unclear what some people are feeling based on their faces and actions

Less extreme expressions also show less universality in perception

also emotions do not have unique neural signatures but valence and arousal do

90
Q

What is Dr. Lai’s perspective on the discrete emotion theory

A

Evidence mostly supports the constructive theory of emotions as the “basic ingredients” of emotion

Taking a discrete emotion view is helpful even if it is not how emotions are, deep down
e.g., Clinical treatments for specific emotions (e.g., anxiety, depression, anger)

91
Q

Intrapersonal functions of emotions

A

Emotions help us act quickly with minimal awareness

Emotions prepare body for immediate action

Emotions influence thoughts

Emotions motivate future behavior

92
Q

How do emotions influence thoughts

A

increase memory for emotional events

inform attitudes, values, and beliefs

93
Q

How do emotions motivate future behavior

A

Work to get positive emotions
Work to avoid negative emotions

94
Q

Interpersonal functions of emotion

A

Emotional expressions facilitate behaviors in perceivers
ex. how do I make them smile or stop being angry at me

Emotional expressions communicate desired social behavior
ex. if they’re afraid maybe I should be too

95
Q

What did the emotion suppression study show

A

when someone was supressing emotions, they were rated as less likebale and both people had higher blood pressure

96
Q

Emotion Regulation

A

The processes by which individuals influence…
the emotions they have,
when they have them,
and how they experience and express their emotions.

97
Q

What are the steps of the process model of emotion regulation

A

Situational Selection
Situation Modification
Attentional Deployment
Cognitive Change
Response Modulation

98
Q

How do you regulate emotions using situation selection

A

Avoid or approach a situation

99
Q

How do you regulate emotions using situation modifaction

A

Modify situations to change emotional impact

100
Q

How do you regulate emotions using attentional deployment

A

Diverting or focusing attetnion

101
Q

How do you regulate emotions using cognitive change

A

Thinking about the situation in a specific way to estimate how you will feel about something

102
Q

How do you regulate emotions using response modulation

A

Trying to change the emotional response after it activates

103
Q

Ideal Affect

A

The emotions that people want to feel

104
Q

What are the differences between high and low ideal affect in older and younger people

A

Younger: Like high and low arousal about equally
Older: Like low arousal more

105
Q

What does the need to belong drive

A

short and long term relationships

106
Q

Why do we have a need to belong

A

Reproduction

Cooperation = protection, success as hunter/gatherer

People who feel supported by close relationships are:
happier
healthier

107
Q

How does the need to belong relate to health

A

The more roommates like each other, the less they suffer from the flu

Happily married couples have stronger immune systems than unhappily married couples

108
Q

4 facots of interpersonal attraction

A

Similarity
Proximity
Reciprocity
Physical attractiveness

109
Q

What is more important than actual similiarity

A

percieved simalirity

110
Q

Why does similiarity affect relationships

A
  1. We think that people who are similar will also like us, so we are likely to initiate a relationship
  2. People who are similar validate our own characteristics and beliefs
  3. We make negative inferences about people who disagree with us
  4. we share acitvities and interests
  5. It’s easier to communicate
  6. Less competition and ego threat
111
Q

Propinquity Effect

A

The more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends (& romantic partners)

112
Q

What did the apartment and closeness study show

A

65% of the friends mentioned lived in the same buildings and the ones that were most likely to be called close friends were next door neighbors (41%) and then neighbors who lived two doors away (22%) and then neighbors who lived on opposite ends of the hall (10%)

113
Q

Two Limtis of Proximity

A
  • if similarity is low
  • propinquity effect is strongest when your initial evaluation is neutral
114
Q

Reciprocity

A

We like others who like us – this is the single most important factor in attraction; it can make up for all the others

115
Q

How is reciprocity related to the self-fulfilling prophecy

A

if we believe someone likes us, we behave in more likable ways

116
Q

When is physical attractiveness most imporant and how do we know this

A

the early stages of a relationship and from the dance study

117
Q

How does symmetry relate to attractivenss

A

placement and size of features is similar on both sides of the face
Symmetrical faces are preferred
One of the few cultural universals in attractiveness

118
Q

Why is symmetry so imporatn

A

Evolutionary psych: It’s a signal that you’re healthy BUT it doesn’t matter anymore as much

119
Q

Halo Effect

A

Attractive people are assumed to have more positive characteristics

120
Q

Is the halo effect real?

A

yes BUT related to the self-fulfillign prophecy and might be because they have more oppurutnites to improve their social interaction skills

121
Q

What are the three components of love

A

Passion, Intimacy and Commitment

122
Q

What does romantic love entail

A

Intimicy and passion

one-night stand or summer fling

123
Q

What does liking entail

A

intimacy

124
Q

What does fatuous love entail

A

commitment and passion

“love at first sight”/high school love

125
Q

what does infatuation entail

A

passion

126
Q

what does companionte love entail

A

commitment and intimacy

grandparents

127
Q

what does empty love ential

A

commitment

128
Q

what does consumate love ential

A

commitment, intimicy, and passion

129
Q

What increases over time

A

intimicay and commitment (but this platoes at some point)

129
Q

What peaks in the beginning of a relationship and drops off over time

A

passion

130
Q

Social Exchange Theory

A

Maximize rewards, minimize costs

131
Q

What does relationship satisfaction depend on

A

Rewards received from the relationship
Costs incurred by being in the relationship
Expectations for what they should be getting out of the relationship
Alternatives for a better relationship are available

132
Q

What is the major problem with the social exchange theory?

A

people often stay in relationships where there are few rewards and many obviously better alternatives

133
Q

What is the alternative for the social exchange theory?

A

Investment

134
Q

Equity Theory

A

The idea that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs experienced and both parties’ contributions are roughly equal

135
Q

Exchange Relationships

A

Relationships governed by the need for equity (i.e., for an equal ratio of rewards and costs)

136
Q

Communal Relationships

A

Relationships in which people’s primary concern is being responsive to the other person’s needs

137
Q

The four horeseman of marital apocalypse

A

Criticism, Stonewalling, Defensiveness, and Contempt

138
Q

Top predictors of divorce

A

Neuroticism
Partnering with someone highly sensitive to rejection
Marrying at a young age
Undergoing financial stress

139
Q

What is the common theme in the four horsemen

A

Blame and negative attributions for partner’s behavior

140
Q

Partners in unsatisfying relationships are more likely to

A

make attributions that cast partner in a negative light

141
Q

How do you fight criticsm

A

Gentle start up – using “I” statemetns

142
Q

How do you fight Defensiveness

A

Accept your partner’s perspective and offer an apology for any wrong doing

143
Q

How do you fight Stonewalling

A

take a break and spend that time doing something soothing and distracting

144
Q

How do you fight Contempt

A

remind yourself of your partner’s positive qualities and find gratitude for positive actions

145
Q

How many comparisons per week do couples make to other couples and what percent are downward vs upward

A

10.6 times

85% downward
15% upward

146
Q

What are the consequences of downward comparisons for couples

A

Increase positive perceptions of your partner (fleetingly)
Effects last less than a couple hours
Not linked to long-term relationship satisfaction

147
Q

What are the consequences of upward comparisons for couples

A

Reduce positive perceptions of your partner (durably)
Linked to reduced long-term relationship satisfaction

148
Q

What is the key component of getting close to others

A

Self-disclosure

149
Q

How do close relationships develop

A

through reciprocal disclosure

150
Q

What are the four ways to think about the good life

A

Frequency Positive Emotions
Lack of Negative Emotions
Life Satisfaction
Meaning in Life

151
Q

What are some examples of frequent positive emotions

A

Having fun with your hobbies

Eating yummy things

Doing interesting work

Having great friends and romantic partners

152
Q

What are some examples of negative emotions

A

Not having many things to worry about

Not being sad or angry

Being at a job that isn’t stressful

153
Q

What is Life Satisfaction

A

Self-report about how well life is going
Comes from many different causes, based on what people find to be important in their lives

154
Q

How does a meaningful life differ from a happy one

A

Being stressed at work but feeling like the job is important

155
Q

A meaningful life is met by meeting 4 needs

A
  1. A sense of purpose in life (current activities are related to future outcomes)
  2. Feelings of efficacy (sense of having control over one’s outcomes
  3. Our actions are morally justified
  4. Positive self-worth
156
Q

3 causes of subjective well-being

A

People
Things
Society

157
Q

Unemployment is linked with

A

low life satisfaction

158
Q

What is higher the negative or positive plateu point

A

The negative plateau point

159
Q

Societal causes of subjective well-being

A

Material resources
Life expectancy
War and conflict
corruption
trust and cooperation within society

160
Q

Pluralistic Ignorance

A

when people use the inactions of others to define their own causes

161
Q

What do potential helpers engage in before getting involved

A

A cost-benefit analysis

162
Q

When do men help and when do women help

A

Men might be more willing to help in physical situations

Women are more likely to help in compassionate, caring, and nurturing situations

163
Q

What OCEAN trait makes you more willing to help?

A

Agreeableness

164
Q

What two thinks make up Prosocial Personality orientation?

A

Other-oriented empathy (highly correlated with agreeableness)

Helpfulness

165
Q

What are two approaches to the egoistic motivation

A

The negative state relief model – people sometimes help to make themselves feel better

The arousal: cost reward model – focuses on the aversive feelings aroused by seeing another in need

166
Q

Empathy-Altruism Model

A

when someone has empathic concern, they will act altruistically

167
Q

Big Five OCEAN Traits

A

Openness to new experiences, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

168
Q

What are traits and roles the main currency of

A

The self as a social actor

169
Q

What is the motivated agent motivated by

A

inner needs, wants, desires, fears, goals, values, etc.

170
Q

When does theory of mind start

A

age 4

171
Q

When happens from the age of 5-7

A

More planning and goal-oriented which increases self-esteem when goals are met

172
Q

What happens when you are a teenager

A

develop sense of identity

173
Q

What is temporal continuity and narrative identity

A

forming a narrative in life that combines the past present and future forming a story with unity, meaning and purpose

174
Q

When is the autobiogrpahical author developed and what is it affected by

A

early-adult years and culture!!

175
Q

Why do people compare themselves

A

The need of self-evaluation

176
Q

Self enhancement theory

A

feeling better because of donward comparison

177
Q

Self-evaluation maintenence

A

Self esteem relies on relationship closeness –> ppl tend to be more competitive w friends

178
Q

As the # of comparison targets increases…

A

Social Comparison decreases

179
Q

Frog Pond Effect

A

People prefer to be a big frog in a small pond than a small frog in a big pond bc of self-esteem

180
Q

Emotion Definition

A

rapid information processing systems that help us with minimal thinking

181
Q

What do emotions decrease

A

Social complexity

182
Q

Matching hypothesis

A

when couples are very similiar to each other

183
Q

internal/top down causes of happiness

A

Inborn temperment
personality + temperment
outlook resilience

184
Q

external/bottom up causes of happiness

A

material resources
social resources
desirable society

Social Psychology (3 decks)

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