Social Psych Flashcards
evolution definition
changes over time driven by successful reproduction via natural selection
however random variations
selection pressure definition
environment favours certain features over others
intrasexual competition
members of same sex compete with each other for mates
intersexual selection
members of one sex prefer certain qualities in mates
qualities we look for in a mate
- physical health
- stability
- high level testosterone (even tho no evolutionary benefit)
- symmetry
qualities we don’t like in mates
- baldness
- bad eyesight
- sparse facial hair (low level testosterone)
gene selection theory definition
genes increase replication in 2 ways
- influence body w genes to survive
- influence individs to help others w same genes to survive
psychological adaptations evolutionary theory
mechanisms of mind that evolved to solve specific problems of survival + reproduction
examples of psychological adaptations
- craving fatty + sweet food
- in-groups
sexual strategies theory
mating strategies based on culture, social context, parental influence, personal mate value
sexual strategies in women
- possession of resources
- commitment
- access to resources
sexual strategies in men
- youth
- health
- attractiveness
error management theory definition
uncertain situation judgements affected by cognitive biases that minimise costly errors
error management theory
type 1 error
false alarm (less costly of error)
error management theory
type 2 error
undetected threat (more costly)
type 1 error in males
perceiving female attention as sexual interest
women don’t have this bc evolutionarily mates need to be chosen with more consideration
type 1 error we might experience
seeing faces in nature -> survival (detecting threats)
behaviourism on nature/nurture + determinism/indeterminism
nurtured + determine
evolutionary psych on nature/nurture + determinism/indeterminsim
nature + determine
humanistic psych on nature/nurture + determinism/indeterminsim
nurture + indeterminism
is classic psychoanalysis or cognitivism more deterministic
classic psychoanalysis
determinism definition
no free will
school of psychology that rejects scientific method most
humanistic psychology
schools of psychology that appreciates scientific method most
- behaviourism
- cognitivism
- evolutionary psyschology
3 main people of behaviourism
- Charles Darwin
- Ivan Pavlov
- BF Skinner
unconditioned stimulus
stimulus that elicits response without prior training
unconditioned response
response without prior training
conditioned stimulus
stimulus that doesn’t elicit response initially until paired with unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response
response elicited by conditioned stimulus
blocking definition
previous association prevents new association from being formed
classical conditioning 4 important notes
- generates multiple responses
- establishes preferences and aversions
- underlies various psych conditions (phobias)
- pairing conditioned + unconditioned stimulus is not enough for conditioning
3 important things to know about operant conditioning
- requires free will
2 instrumental respones occur under stimulus control - reinforcers aren’t equal
founder of observational learning
Albert Bandura
4 stages of observational learning
- attention
- retention
- initiation
- motivation
culture definition
pattern of shared meaning + behavior
cultural intelligence
ability + awareness to apply cultural awareness to practical uses
aspects of culture
- versatile
- shared
- cumulative
- patterns
3 common ways to think about culture
- progressive cultivation -> ballet or higher education to be refined
- ways of life -> religion
- shared learning -> parenting, teaching (sharing information + awareness of multi-cult)
ethnographic + cross-culture research benefits + disadvantages
etho: + culturally sensitive + people in natural environment
-can’t make comparisons between groups
cross-culture: + can make comparisons
- ethnocentric bias
how individualists might act
- from the west
- focus on individ traits
- personal goals guide decisions
how collectivists might act
- Asian countries
- interdependent relationship focus
- situations guide decisions
cultural relativism definition
there are no universal standards of right and wrong, cultures can’t be compared
it’s not wrong for stoning of women because that’s their culture
learned aspects of culture
- identity
- emotions
- etiquette
- values/morals
family definition
subculture, bio relatives or close group of people that support each other
traditional family definition
nuclear family (2 parents)
modern family
single, blended etc
family systems theory
people encouraged by family members to behave in certain ways to increase survival
attachment style definition
relationship built up with primary caregiver depending on how they respond to needs
secure attachment
most prevalent, people most likely to explore bc of safety net
anxious avoidant attachment
distance yourself from primary caregiver bc caregiver doesn’t respond to needs
- mask affection
anxious ambivalent attachment
mix of diff attachment styles
- want to approach.+ avoid parent
- due to chaotic upbringing -> can’t predict parent reactions
coherence definition
secure attachment style can be developed later if people treat us well
marriage market definition
single people advertising themselves as potential partners
- matchmakers
- dating apps
authoritative parent style
high support, high demand
authoritarian parent style
low support, high demand
permissive parent style
high support, low demand
uninvolved parent style
low support, low demand
anxious-resistant attachment
insecure, think people don’t love them
very dependent
empty nest definition
adult children leave household
sandwich generation
caring for parents + caring for own children
boomerang generation
adults move back in with their family
protective factors that stop divorce
- high education
- marrying at older age
- parents remain married
- religion less accepting of divorce
risk factors for divorce
- kids before marriage
- serial cohabitation
- live in society accepting of divorce
happy families should
- teach morality
- savour the good
- use extended family network
- create family identity (how I met your mother)
- forgive
conformity definition
tendency to act + think like those around us
why do people conform
normative influence = want to fit in
informational influence = others might know some important info (wear jacket if everyone is wearing jacket)
obedience definition
individuals compliance when given an order from authority
when are people less willing to give electric shocks
- when similarities between teachers and learners
- when in same room as learner
- when having to touch learner
- when seeing other teachers refuse
- when theyrelate to learner (similarities)
cooperative social value orientation
cooperate so neither loses and both gain decent amount
individualistic social value orientation
interested in self gaining as much as possible
competitive social value orientation
maximising difference between you and others
situational influences on cooperation
- communication + commitment
- trust
- group identification (in-group members)
theory of mind
understanding people’s minds
TOM recognising agents
agents have motivations for actions
included in TOM are
- identifying agents + goals
- imitation
- mimicry
- joint attention
- visual perspective taking
- mental state inference
egocentrism definition
inability to understand someone else’s perspective (TOM)
overestimation of TOM ability
false-belief/Sally Anne test
if Sally puts ball in her basket, goes out of the room and Anne puts ball in a box where is Sally going to look for her ball?
3-4 year olds don’t understand yet the diff between someone else’s perspective vs their own knowledge
3 factors making up emotions
- subjective experience
- physiological rxn
- targeted
intrapersonal function of emotion
- act quick without having to think
- prepares body for action
- influences thought
- motivates future behaviour
James Lange theory of emotions
peripheral
arousal then emotions
Cannon Bard theory of emotions
central
- arousal + emotions at same time
Schachter theory of emotions
two factor theory
arousal -> interpretation -> emotion
interpersonal functions of emotions
- facilitates specific behaviour in perceivers -> help when you cry
- signals nature of interpersonal relationship
- provides incentives for desired social behaviour
- social referencing
universalists emotions
we have same ancestors, emotions the same
constructivist emotions
humans adapted to diff environment, emotions evolved too
cultural ideas + practices are all encompassing
Americans vs Asians in emotions
Americans independent want high arousal positive, seek arousing leisure activities + feel good after positive event
Asians prefer low arousal, calm and feel mixed feelings after positive event (guilt)
emotional suppression in Asians + Americans
emotional suppression leads to depression in America but not in Asia bc suppression is desired social skill
similarities of Asians + Americans
- similar physiological response to emotions
- positive emotions after positive events
- self-esteem + relationship harmony emphasises (relationship less important in US tho)
learning appropraiate cultural expressions of emotions
- kids books
- value differences (of emotions)
- models of self
priming definition
making one outcome more probable, readiness to see stimuli you’re more often focused on
missing friend -> seeing her face more often in crowd
biased interpretation definition
we tend to see objective as going against our views bc more sensitive about strong moral issues
seeing unbiased news -> we think it supports the opposition
constructing memories
we reconstruct our past to make it more pleasant for ourselves
- good ol high school days
- ex-boyfriend worse than he actually was
judging events with emotions
when in positive mood we remember more of our positive actions
negative mood remember more negative things we did
overconfidence in judging events
confirmation bias of info that confirms our preconceived notions
2 factors making up heuristics
- availability = how available in our mind
- representativeness = whether someone fits in a box
illusion of control definition
you think you’re in control of something you’re not
gamblers would rather spin wheel than let someone else do
regression towards average
we expect peaks or lows to regress back to general trend
*if life is going too good we expect some bad news
attribution of causality
- dispositional -> negative evaluation of person
- situational -> positive evaluation of person
Theory of correspondent inferences
- creator
- what is it
Harold Kelley
- distinctiveness -> if action normally not seen in person situational attribution
- consensus -> if other people behave similarly -> situational attribution
fundamental attribution error
- creators
- what is it
Ross, Amabile, Steinmetz
attribute actions to dispositions rather than situations
influence of expectations theory
self-fulfilling prophecy
teacher smiles more at student, more attention, student more enthusiastic, answers more, confirms held beliefs
self-fulfilling prophecy in romantic idealisation
we tend to over-evaluate our lovers
with this evaluation they start to become our idealised versions of themselves
morality definition
principles distinguishing right and wrong or good and bad behaviour
descriptive morality definition
code of conduct put forward by society OR accepted by individual for own conduct
prescriptive/normative morality definition
code of conduct, given right circumstances, would be put forward by all people
- subjective
morality in psychology definition
psychological adaptations that allow selfish beings to reap benefits of cooperation
moral systems definition
set of interlocking values, norms, mechanisms etc that regulate self-interest and make cooperative societies possible
in psychology morality is
- subjective
- invented by humans
- differs across cultures/times
common motives of morality
- goals
- individual obstacles
- morality as helping tool
morality analysis steps
- goal
- flaw/obstacle
- solution from morality toolbox
3 neurological decision making systems
- model based
- model free
- pavlovian
consequentialist morality defintion
rating morality based on outcomes
(kill one to save 10)
demonology morality definition
rating morality based on actions committed regardless of outcome
(don’t kill 1 to save 10)
model-based system definition
analysing diff branches of future outcomes to decide
model free system definition
search memory for past evaluations of now considered action
Pavlovian system
automatic, reflexive reaction to appetitive/aversive stimuli
personality traits making us more moral
- politness aspect of agreeableness -> fairness
2- compassion -> helping others
- openness/intellect -> cooperation
- honesty/humility -> fairness, cooperation, trustworthiness
- agreeableness ->reactive cooperation despite transgressions of others
enlightened compassion definition
positive regard of entities beyond self
- morally imaginative
- big in-group
- morally expansive
neglected issues in morality
1- relationship between reasoning + behaviour
- empirical research programmes
understudied issues in morality
- general moral principles into specific guidelines
- emotions accompanying moral dilemmas (before + after)
- connection of moral thoughts, emotions, behaviour
6 advantages of hotness
- first impressions
- mating prospects
- parent + peer favouritism
- education + employment
- electoral success
- judicial outcomes
what makes a person attractive
- youthfulness
- unblemished skin
- facial symmetry
- averageness -> prototype face
- positive expressions
- positive behaviours
- femininity/masculinity
culture differences in attractiveness
- what body you find attractive is culture dependent (hair + body shape)
however faces are universally attractive
why do we find prototype faces more attractive?
- mere-exposure effect
- we like things we already know
evolutionary aspect of attractiveness
signals good mate quality (young, unblemished , symmetrical)
good genes hypothesis
good genes hypothesis definition
qualities liked because associated with higher levels of good hormones
strong jaw in males -> high levels of testosterone -> immunity lower -> must be strong to survive
overgeneralised reactions to disease or bad genes
- avoiding blemishes bc could be disease bc selection mechanism isn’t perfect
factors for start of love
- proximity
- familiarity (mere-exposure effect)
- similarity
- reciprocity
types of love
- intimate
- passionate
- commitment
relationship and social support
we like relationship bc of perceived social support
quality over quantity
3 types of happiness
- life satisfaction
- positive feelings
- low negative feelings
life satisfaction causes
- good income
- achieving goals
- high self-esteem
positive feelings causes
- good social support
- interesting work
- extroversion
low negative feelings causes
- low neuroticism
- positive outlook
- goals are in harmony
internal causes of subjective wellbeing
- inborn temperament
- personality
- resilience
- outlook
external causes of subjective wellbeing
- sufficient material resources
- sufficient social resources
- desirable society
are relationships cause of happiness
- removes ostracism + shunning
- quality v important
BUT not sure if causation or correlation
adaptations of circumstances
when good or bad events occur initial reaction is strong but then returns to former level of happiness
happy people are more
- healthy
- sociable
- productie
- better citizens
ways to be happier
- express gratitude
- seek to make others happy
- find work you love
what influences accuracy of clinical judgements
- illusory correlations
- hindsight / overconfidence
- self confirming diagnosis
- not using statistical predictions
explanatory style therapy definition
reversing negative beliefs about oneself or future
social skills training
practicing new behaviours in safe situations to develop confidence in behaving more effectively in other situations
social relationships support wellbeing
- marriage increases happiness
- close relationships lead to confiding in health issues
- remove poverty
what social relationships and depression rates (highest depression to lowest)
- divorced twice
- cohabiting
- divorced one
- never married
- married
misinformation effect
if eye-witnesses get given wrong info their testimony changes bc of suggestion
retelling effect on witnesses
the more stories are told the less accurate they get
1st testimony most accurate
feedback to witnesses effect
when interrogators suggest preferred info to witnesses the testimony changes
interrogators should be unbiased w/o previous theories in mind
to reduce eyewitness error we should
- train police interviewers
- minimise false lineup identifications (one at a time + suggest perpetrator might not be there)
- educate jurors on errors
influences on jurors decision making
- defendants characteristics -> how attractive + similarities to juror
- jurors instructions
facial features on sentences
- babyfaces charged higher for negligent crimes
- masculine faces charged higher for violent crimes
race on sentences
black + white people equally sentenced but the more black people face higher sentences
death qualified jurors
jurors in favour of death sentence
are bigger groups of jurors better?
yes because more diversity + better recollection of evidence
minority influence definition
small group within bigger group influences beliefs
relationship of financially well off + philosophies
people who consider financial prosperity as important consider life philosophies as less important
characteristics of 21st century people
alpha persuasion
only listing pros
omega persuasion
listing pros and cons
James Speth new consciousness calls for
- seeing humanity as part of nature
- nature as intrinsic value
- value future as well as present
- define quality of life in relational / spiritual instead of material
why does materialism not make people happy?
- adaptation level phenomenon (we get used to luxury)
- impact bias = we overestimate how happy or sad things will make us
prejudice definition
affect,
preconceived opinion/feeling positive or negative
stereotype definition
belief
attributing characteristics to someone based on group membership
discrimination definition
acting on a belief/affect
treating someone favourably/hostilely based on group status rather than individual merit
racism definition
belief that the inherent differences between racial groups determine individual achievements
usually favours own race
hatred or intolerance of another racial group
what does prejudice play a role in?
- discrimination -> unjustified negative of group
- racism -> negative towards racial group
- sexism -> negative towards given sex
anomalous face overgeneralization hypothesis
avoiding blemishes → overgeneralised reactions to disease or bad genes
what age is happiest and most sad
20s happy
50s most unhappy
spontaneous trait transference
people associate traits that we describe in others with us
“she’s a gossip” -> you’re a gossip
belief perseverance
beliefs survive even if scientific evidence proves they’re false
to reduce belief perserverance
explain how the other side could possibly be right
normative influence scientists (with the line lengths)
Solomon Ash
descriptive norm
we act the way most people around us do
ratnional self interest theory
people will 100% of the time defect from cooperation
interindividual-intergroup discontinuity
groups or more competitive and less cooperative when facing another group than individuals facing other individuals
for an act to be intentional it has to
- know the goal
- beliefs of how to achieve goal
unintentional would be making a fool of yourself trying to impress date (not a solid belief of how to achieve goal)
mimicry
subtle, automatic imitation
which can lead to synchronisation (using same gestures as other person)
automatic empathy
when mimicking sad face we feel sad unintentionally
visual perspective taking
“on your left”
mental state inference
being able to let go of egocentrism to see what another thinks about situation
false belief tests show if we’re developed enough to understand
tiers of morality
1 tier: reciprocity (animals capable of this)
2 tier: greater good, social signalling even if actions have lost survival benefit
- abiding to dress codes etc -> ONLY humans do this
self confirming diagnoses
patients give information that confirms your prediction (because you ask questions to get that info from them without being neutral)
depressive realism
depressed people have better judgements
- better at telling others feelings
negative explanatory style
blaming yourself for any wrongs
- depressed people do this
what causes anxiety
wanting to impress people but having self-doubts
