Social Influence - P1 Flashcards
What is conformity? - AO1
A change in a person’s behaviour or opinions as a result or imagined pressure from a person or a group of people
What were the 3 variables in Asch’s experiment? - AO1
1) Group Size
2) Unanimity
3) Task Difficulty
How did Asch use Group Size? - AO1
Asch increased the size of the group by adding more confederates, thus increasing the size of the majority. Conformity increased with group size, but only up to a point, levelling off when the majority was greater than 3.
How did Asch use Unanimity? - AO1
The extent to which all the members of a group agree. In Asch’s studies, the majority was unanimous when all the confederates selected the same comparison line. This produced the greatest degree of conformity in the naïve participants
How did Asch use Task difficulty? - AO1
Asch’s line-judging task is more difficult when it becomes harder to work out the correct answer. Conformity increased because naïve participants assume that the majority is more likely to get it right
What did Solomon Asch do in his 1951 experiment? - AO1
- In 1951, he got 123 American men to participate. He placed each participant into separate groups with 6-8 confederates, where they were presented with cards, on these were 3 drawn lines and they were asked to say which out of the 3 was the same as a line on the side
- With the genuine participant going last, creating unanimity, the participant follows what the confederates said (which was the wrong answer)
What were the results of Asch’s experiment? - AO1
- on average, the genuine participants agreed with confederates’ incorrect answers 36.8% of the time
- there were individual differences, 25% of participants never gave a wrong answer - never conformed
What were the STRENGTHS of Asch’s experiment? - AO3
- investigation has support of the effects of task difficulty from another study (Todd Lucas found that participants copied answers when questions got harder) therefore shows Asch was right, having task difficulty as one of his variables that affects conformity
What were the LIMITATIONS of Asch’s experiment? - AO3
- the tasks and situation were both artificial - the participants may not have known what they were expected to do, so followed the others (‘please you’ or ‘screw you’ effects- picking different)
- according to Fiske’s findings, the groups don’t resemble the ones in their real lives - findings don’t generalise to real life, where conformity would be important
- participants were all men
- participants were all American - individualistic culture, pick what they believe is correct
What were the ethical issues of Asch’s experiment? - AO3
- the genuine participants were initially lied to about experiment (to decrease demand characteristics, ‘please you’ + ‘screw you’)
What are the 3 types of conformity? - AO1
1) Internalisation
2) Identification
3) Compliance
What is Internalisation? - AO1
Give an example
A deep type of conformity; suggests sometimes people genuinely change their private opinions and beliefs to those of the group
- E.g. a student returns home form first term at Uni as a vegetarian like flatmates
What is Identification? - AO1
Give an example
A moderate type of conformity; suggests some people conform to opinions of the group without necessarily agreeing with all of the group’s ideas
- E.g. student returning home from first term at Uni but is desperate for roast beef, having been vegetarian with flatmates
What is Compliance ? - AO1
Give an example
A superficial and temporary type of conformity; suggests sometimes people only superficially go along with the group’s beliefs and behaviours
- E.g. a pupil who is asked to straighten their tie by a teacher, and when teacher leaves they loosen it
What are the 2 explanations for conformity? - AO1
1) Informational Social Influence (ISI)
2) Normative Social Influence (NSI)
What is ISI?
Give an example
It says that we agree with the opinions of the majority because we believe it is correct as well.
- This may lead to internalisation
- the need to be right
E.g. on the first day of a new job you watch to see whether everyone else goes home in their uniform
What is NSI?
Give an example
It says we agree with the majority of the majority because we want to be liked and gain social approval.
- This may lead to compliance
- The need to be liked
E.g. The new student looks around to see if others put their hand up in class
What are Social Roles?
Give examples
The ‘parts’ people play as a member of various social groups.
E.g. child, student, teacher, parent
- these roles come with different expectations we and others have of what is appropriate for each
Why did Zimbardo want to study social roles?
There had been many riots in America and Zimbardo wanted to know why prison guards behave brutally - was it because they have sadistic personalities? Or was it their social role as a prison guard that created such behaviour?
What was the 1973 Stanford Prison Experiment procedure - AO1 (Zimbardo’s experiment)
- Zimbardo at al. (1973), set up a mock prison in the basement of the psychology department at Stanford University.
- 21 emotionally stable students were randomly allocated to roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison.
- Prisoners and guards were encouraged to conform to social roles
- With respect to behaviour, participants were encouraged to identify with their roles by allowing prisoners to leave the study by applying for parole.
- The guards were encouraged to play their role by being reminded that they had complete power over the prisoners.
What did the guards and prisoners wear? - AO1
How did uniforms affect their conformity?
- Through the uniforms they wore and also instructions about their behaviour.
→ E.g. prisoners were given a loose smock and they were identified by a number. Guards wore their own uniform reflecting their status, with a wooden club, handcuffs and mirrored sunglasses to prevent eye contact. - These uniforms created a loss of personal identity - deindividuation - And meant that they would be more likely to conform to the perceived social role.
What were the findings of Zimbardo’s experiment? - AO1
- Social role of a guard: treated prisoners badly and harshly, had utmost power, brutal came up with tactics e.g. the ‘divide and rule’, and were highly aggressive.
- Social role of prisoners: rebelled within two days, rebelled but then became submissive, when it became too much, had breakdowns, anxiety and depression.
What were the STRENGTHS of Zimbardo’s prison experiment? - AO3
There were a lot of control variables in the experiment; it increased internal validity.
→ The participants had to be emotionally stable individuals and were chosen randomly to their assigned roles of guard or prisoner
What were the LIMITATIONS of Zimbardo’s prison experiment? - AO3
- There was a lack of realism, the prison was not set up like a prison in the real world
- May have exaggerated the power of social roles to influence behaviour →
1/3 of guards actually behaved in a brutal manner, 1/3 applied to the rules fairly and the rest of the guards tried to help and support the prisoners.
What were the Ethical Issues of Zimbardo’s prison experiment? - AO3
Followed basically none of the rules of ethics = consent, deception, the right to leave, confidentiality, protection from harm (physiological and physical), and a debrief at the end.
What was the background of the participants in Milgram’s 1963 study? - AO1
- how many were there
Stanley Milgram recruited 40 American male participants, supposedly for a study of memory
What were the roles + who played which part? - AO1
- Each participant arrived at Milgram’s lab and drew lots for their role
- A confederate, (‘Mr. Wallace’) was always the ‘Learner’ while the true participant was the teacher
- An experimenter (another confederate) wore a lab coat
- The teacher could hear, but not see the learner
What was the baseline procedure in Milgram’s obedience study? - AO1
- The teacher had to give the learner an increasingly severe electric shock each time he made a mistake on a task. The shocks, increased in 15 volts, steps up to 450 volts
- The shocks were fake, but the shock machine was labelled to make them look increasingly severe
- If the teacher wished to stop, the experimenter gave a verbal ‘prod’ to continue
what were the key findings in Milgram’s obedience study? - AO1
- 12.5% (five participants) stopped at 300 volts
- 65% continue to 450 volts, the highest level
- Observations (Qualitative data) - participants showed signs of extreme tension. Three had ‘full-blown uncontrollable seizures’
What were the other findings in Milgram’s obedience study? - AO1
- Before the study, Milgram asked 14 psychology students to predict how they thought the naïve participants would respond. It’s estimated no more than 3% would continue to 450 votes (so the baseline findings were unexpected)
- After the study, participants were debriefed. Follow-up questionnaire showed 84% were glad they had participated
What were the conclusions made from Milgram’s obedience study? - AO1
- We obey legitimate authority, even if it means that behaviour causes harm to someone else.
- Certain situational factors encourage obedience (Milgram investigated these)
What was one strength of Milgram’s study on obedience? - AO3
One strength is that replications have supported Milgram’s research findings
- In a French TV documentary/ Game Show, contestants were paid to give fake electric shocks when ordered by the presenter to other participants (actors) - Beauvois at al. (2002)
80% gave the maximum 460 volts to an apparently unconscious man. Their behaviour was like that of Milgram’s participants e.g. many signs of anxiety
- This supports Milgrom’s original findings about obedience to authority
What was one limitation of Milgram’s study on obedience? - AO3
One limitation is that Milgram’s study lacked internal validity
- Orne and Holland (1968) argued that participants guessed the shocks were fake. So they were ‘play-acting’
- This was supported by Parry’s discovery that only half of the participants believed the shocks were real
- This suggests that participants may have been responding to demand characteristics
What was a counterpoint for one limitation of Milgram’s study on obedience? - AO3
- However, Sheridan and King’s (1972) participants gave real shocks to a puppy; 54% of males and 100% females delivered what they thought was a fatal shock
- This suggests the obedience in Milgram study might be genuine
What was another limitation of Milgram’s study on obedience? - AO3
One limitation is that the findings are not due to blind obedience
- Haslam et al. (2014) found that every participant given the first three prods obeyed the experimenter, but those given the 4th prod disobeyed
- According to Social Identity theory, the first three prods required identification with the science of the research, but the 4th prod required blind obedience
- This shows that the findings are best explained in terms of identification with scientific games and not as blind obedience to authority
What is obedience? - AO1
A form of social influence in which an individual follows a direct order. The person issuing the order is usually a figure of authority who has the power to punish when obedient behaviour is not forthcoming
Were there any ethical issues in Milgram’s study on obedience? - AO3
- The participants in this study were deceived, e.g. they thought that the shocks were real. Milgram dealt with this by debriefing the participants.
- Baumrind (1964) felt this deception could have serious consequences for participants and researchers, e.g.no informed consent possible
- Therefore research can damage the reputations of psychologists + their research in the eyes of the public
What are situation variables? - AO1
Features of the immediate physical and social environment which may influence a person’s behaviour, such as proximity, location, and uniform. The alternative is dispositional variables, where behaviour is explained in terms of personality
What is proximity? - AO1
The physical closeness or distance of an authority figure to the person they are giving an order to. Also refers to the physical closeness of the (Teacher) to the victim (Learner) in Milgram’s studies.
What is location? - AO1
The place where an order is issued. The relevant factor that influences obedience is the status or prestige associated with the location.
What is uniform? - AO1
People in positions of authority often have a specific outfit that is symbolic of their authority, for example, police officers and judges. This indicates that they are entitled to expect our obedience.
How did proximity affect obedience? - AO1
- In the baseline study, the teacher could hear the learner but not see him.
- In the proximity variation, Teacher + Learner were in the same room and the obedience rate dropped from 65% to 40%.
- In the touch proximity variation, the Teacher forced the Learner’s hand onto a shock plate. The obedience rate was 30%.
- In the remote instruction variation, the Experimentar left the room and gave instructions by telephone. The obedience rate was 20.5% and the participants often pretended to give shocks.
- Explanation - decreased proximity allows people to psychologically distance themselves from the consequences of their actions.
- For example, when the Teacher and Learner were physically separated, the Teacher was less aware of the harm done, so was obedient.
How did location affect obedience? - AO1
- This study was conducted in a rundown building, rather than at the prestigious Yale university (as in the baseline)
- Obedience dropped to 47.5%
- Explanation - obedience was higher in the university because the settling was illegitimate and had authority (obedience was expected)
How did uniform affect obedience? -AO1
- In the baseline study, the Experimenter wore a grey lab coat - a kind of uniform
- In one variation, he was called away by an ‘inconvenient’ phone call at the start of the procedure. His role was taken over by an ‘ordinary member of the public’ in everyday clothes
- Obedience fell to 20%, the lowest of these variations
- Explanation - a uniform is a strong symbol of legitimate authority granted by society. Someone without a uniform has a less right to expect obedience.
What is one strength of the effects of situational variables on obedience? - AO3
- One strength is research support for the influence of situational variables.
- Beckman’s 1974 Confederates dressed in different outfits (jacket, tie, milkman, security guard) and issued demands (e.g. pick up the litter) to people on the streets of New York City
- People were twice as likely to obey the ‘security guard’, than the jacket/tie confederate
- This shows that the situational variables, such as a uniform does have a powerful effect on obedience
What another strength of the effects of situational variables on obedience? - AO3
- Meeus and Raaijmakers (1986) worked with Dutch participants who were ordered to say stressful comments to interviewees
- And 90% obedience and obedience fell when proximity decreased (person giving orders not present)
- This shows that Milgram’s findings are not limited to American males, but are valid across cultures.
What is a counterpoint for a strength of the effects of situational variables on obedience? - AO3
- However, Smith and Bond (1998) note that most replications took place in societies (e.g. Spain, Australia), culturally not that different from the US.
- Therefore, we cannot conclude that Milgram’s findings about proximity, location and uniform apply to people in all (or most) cultures
What is one limitation of the effects of situational variables on obedience? - AO3
- Orne + Holland (1968) suggested the variations (compared to the baseline study) were even more likely to trigger a suspicion because of the extra experimental manipulation
- In the variation where the Experimenter was replaced by a ‘member of the public’, even Milgram recognised this was so contrived that some participants may have worked out
- Therefore, it is unclear whether the results are due to obedience or because the participants saw the deception and play acted (i.e. were influenced by demand characteristics)
