Memory - P1 Flashcards
What is Short-term memory? - AO1
The limited-capacity memory store. In STM, coding is mainly acoustic (sounds similar), capacity is between 5-9 items, duration on average is about 18 seconds
What is long-term memory? - AO1
The permanent memory store. In LTM, coding is mainly semantic (similar meaning), it has unlimited capacity and can store memories for up to a lifetime
What is Coding? AO1
The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores
What is Capacity? - AO1
The amount of information that can be held in a memory store
What is Duration? - AO1
The length of time information can be held in memory
Who researched coding at what was the procedure? - AO1
Baddeley researched coding in 1966
- acoustically similar words (e.g. cat, cab, can) or dissimilar(e.g. pit, few, cow)
- semantically similar (e.g. great, large, big) or dissimilar (e.g. good, huge, hot)
What were the results of Baddeley’s coding experiment? - AO1
- he found that immediate recall was worse with acoustically similar words, STM is acoustic
- recall after 20 mins worse with semantically similar words, LTM is semantic
What were the strengths of coding? - AO3
One strength is it identified to memory stores
- later research showed there are exceptions to Baddeley’s findings
- but STM is mostly acoustic + LTM is mostly semantic
- this led to the development of multi-store model
What were the limitations of coding? - AO3
One limitation is that it used artificial stimuli
- the words used had no personal meaning to participants so tells us little about coding for everyday memory tasks
- when processing more meaningful info, people use semantic coding even for STM
- this means the findings of this study have limited application
Who researched capacity through testing digital span + what was the procedure? - AO1
Jacobs (1887) - testing digital span
- researcher reads 4 digits + increases until the participants can’t recall the order correctly. Final number = digit span
What were the results of Jacobs’ capacity experiment? - AO1
On average, participants could repeat back 9.3 numbers and 7.3 letters in correct order immediately after they were presented
Who researched capacity through observation + what was the procedure? - AO1
Miller (1956) - Magic number 7 + or -2
- Miller observed everyday practice, noted that things come in sevens - notes of musical scale, days of the week, deadly sins, etc.
What were the results of Miller’s capacity experiment? - AO1
The span of STM is about 7 items (plus or minus 2) but is increased by chunking - grouping sets of digits/letters into meaningful units
What were the strengths of capacity? - AO3
one strength of Jacobs’ study is that it has been replicated
- this is an old study + may have lacked adequate controls ( CVs, e.g. participants being distracted)
- despite this, Jacobs’ findings have been confirmed in later controlled studies (e.g. Bopp + Verhaeghen 2005)
- this shows that his study is a valid measure of STM digit span
What were the limitations of capacity? - AO3
one limitation of Miller’s research is it may overstimulate STM capacity
- for example, Cowan (2001) reviewed other research
- he concluded the capacity of STM was only about 4 (+ or - 1) chunks
- this suggests that the lower end of Miller’s estimate (5 items) is more appropriate than 7 items
Who researched duration through consonant syllables + what was the procedure? - AO1
Peterson and Peterson (1959) - consonant syllables
- 24 students were given a consonant syllable (e.g YCG) to recall + 3-digit number to count backwards from. The retention interval was varied: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds
What were the results of Peterson & Peterson’s duration experiment? - AO1
After 3 seconds - average recall was about 80%. After 18 secs it was about 3%. STM duration without rehearsal is up to 18 seconds
Who researched duration through yearbook photos + what was the procedure? - AO1
Bahrick et al. (1975) - yearbook photos
- participants were 392 Americans aged 17-74
1. recognition test - 50 photos from high school yearbooks
2. free recall test - participants listed names of their graduating class
What were the results of Bahrick et al.’s duration experiment? - AO1
- recognition test - 90% accurate after 15 years, 70% after 48 years
- free recall test - 60% recall after 15 years, 30% after 48 years
What were the strengths of duration? - AO3
one strength of Bahrick et al.’s study is it had high external validity
- everyday meaningful memories (e.g. of people’s faces + names) were studied
- when lab studies were done with meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall rates were lower (e.g. shepard 1967)
- this means Bahrick et al.’s findings reflect a more ‘real’ estimate of the duration of LTM
What were the limitations of duration? - AO3
one limitation of Peterson + Peterson’s study is the meaningless stimuli
- we sometimes try to recall meaningless things so the study isn’t completely irrelevant
- but recall of consonant syllables doesn’t reflect meaningful everyday memory tasks
- therefore the study lacked external validity
Which 2 people created the multi-store memory model (MSM) in 1968? - AO1
- what does the MSM describe
- it was created by Atkinson + Shiffrin
- the MSM describes how information flows through the memory system. Memory is made of 3 stores linked: the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory
What is the sensory register (SR)? - AO1
All stimuli from the environment (e.g. sound of someone talking) pass into the SR. This part of memory is not 1 store but 5, 1 for each sense
- Coding; modality-specific, depends on the sense
- Capacity; very high, e.g. over 100 million cells in one eye, each storing data
- Duration; very brief, less than 1/2 a second
How is information transferred from SR to STM? - AO1
information passes further into memory only if attention is paid to it (attention is the key process)
What is the short-term memory store (STM)? - AO1
A limited capacity store of temporary duration
- Coding; acoustic (based on sound)
- Capacity; between 5-9 (7 + or - 2) items before some forgetting occurs (Cowan argues for around 5)
- Duration; about 18s unless the info is rehearsed
How is memory transferred from STM to LTM? - AO1
Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves. We can keep information in STM as long as we rehearse it
- if we rehearse it long enough, it passes into LTM
What is the long-term memory store (LTM)? - AO1
A permanent memory store
- Coding; mostly semantic (i.e. in terms of meaning)
- Capacity; potentially unlimited
- Duration; potentially up to a lifetime
What is one strength of the MSM of memory? - AO3
One strength is research support showing STM and LTM are different
- Baddeley (1966) found we tend to mix up words that sound similar when using our STMs; so STM coding = acoustic
- but we mix up words that have similar meanings when we use our LTMs; shows LTM coding = semantic
- this supports the MSM’s view that these 2 memory stores are separate + independent
What is a counterpoint to a strength of the MSM of memory? - AO3
- Despite apparent support, the studies tend not to use everyday info (e.g. faces, names). They use digits/letters (Jacobs) or meaningless consonant syllables (Peterson + Peterson)
- therefore the MSM may not be a valid model of how memory works in everyday life where memory tends to involve meaningful information
What is one limitation of the MSM of memory? - AO3
One limitation is evidence suggesting there is more than one STM store
- KF had amnesia (Shallice + Warrington 1970), STM recall for digits was poor when he heard them, but much better when he read them
- other studies confirm there may also be separate STM store for non-verbal sounds (e.g. noises)
- therefore the MSM is wrong to claim there is just one STM store processing diff. types of information
What is another limitation of the MSM of memory? - AO3
Another limitation is prolonged rehearsal is not needed for STM->LTM transfer
- Craik + Watkins (1973) argued there are 2 types of rehearsal called maintenance (amount of rehearsal, described in MSM) + elaborative
- elaborative rehearsal is needed for long-term storage. This occurs e.g. when you link info to your existing knowledge, or think about its meaning
- suggests that the MSM doesn’t fully explain how long-term storage is achieved
What are the 3 types of long-term memory? - AO1
- episodic
- semantic
- procedural
What is episodic memory? - AO1
It’s a long-term memory store for personal events
- it includes memories of when the events occurred + of people, objects, places + behaviours involved
- memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort
What is semantic memory? - AO1
It’s a long-term memory store for our knowledge of the world
- this includes facts + our knowledge of what words and concepts mean
- these memories usually also need to be recalled deliberately
What is procedural memory? - AO1
It’s a long-term memory store for our knowledge of how to do things
- this includes our memories of learned skills
- we usually recall these memories without making a conscious or deliberate effort
What is one strength of the types of long-term memory? - AO3
One strength is case study evidence of different types of LTM
- clinical studies of amnesia (HM + Clive Wearing) showed both had difficulty recalling events that had happened to them in their pasts (episodic memory)
- but their semantic memories were relatively unaffected (e.g. HM did not need the concept of ‘dog’ explained to him). Procedural memories were also intact (e.g. Clive Wearing still played the piano)
- suggests the view that there are diff. memory stores in LTM because one store can be damaged but other stores are unaffected
What is a counterpoint to a strength of the types of long-term memory? - AO3
Researchers lack control in clinical case studies - they don’t know anything about the person’s memory before brain damage
- therefore clinical studies are limited in what they can tell us about different types of LTM
What is a limitation of the types of long-term memory? - AO3
One limitation is conflicting findings about types of of LTM and brain areas
- Buckner + Peterson (1996) reviews research findings + concluded that semantic memory is located in the left prefrontal cortex and episodic with right prefrontal cortex
- but other studies (e.g. Tulving et al. 1994) found that semantic memory was associated with the right prefrontal cortex + the reverse for episodic memory
- this challenges any neurophysiological evidence to support types of memory as there’s poor agreement in where each type might be located
What is another strength of the types of long-term memory? - AO3
Another strength is helping people with memory problems
- memory loss in old age is specific to episodic memory - it is harder to recall memories of recent experiences although past episodic memories are intact
- Belleville et al. (2006) devised an intervention for older people targeting episodic memory, which improved their memory compared to a control group
- this shows that distinguishing between types of LTM enables specific treatments to be developed
Which 2 people created the working memory model (WMM) in 1974? - AO1
- what does the WMM describe
The WMM is a model of STM
- Baddeley + Hitch created this model
- the WMM is concerned with the ‘mental space’ that is active when, for example, working on an arithmetic problem or playing chess or comprehending language, etc.
What is the Central executive (CE)? - AO1
It allocates subsystems
- supervisory role- monitors incoming data, directs attention + allocates subsystems to tasks
- it has a very limited storage capacity
What is coding and capacity like in the CE? - AO1
Coding is flexible
capacity is very limited
What is the Phonological loop (PL)? - AO1
Consists of a phonological store and an articulating process.
PL deals with auditory info and preserves the order in which the info arrives. It’s subdivided into:
- phonological store; stores the words you hear
- articulating process; allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds to keep them in WM while they are needed)
What is coding and capacity like in the PL? - AO1
Coding is acoustic
Capacity is about 2 seconds’ worth of what you can say
What is the Visuo-spatial sketchpad loop (VSS)? - AO1
Stores visual and/or spatial info when required (e.g. recalling how many windows your house has). Logie (1995) subdivided the VSS into:
- visual cache; stores visual data
- inner scribe; records arrangement of objects in visual field
What is coding and capacity like in the VSS? - AO1
Coding is visual and spatial
Capacity is 3 or 4 objects
What is the Episodic buffer (EB)? - AO1
It is a temporary storage
It was added in 2000. Its is a temporary store for info. Integrates visual, spatial + verbal info from other stores
- maintains sense of time sequencing - recording events (episodes) that are happening
- links to LTM
