Attachment - P1 Flashcards
What is attachment? - AO1
An attachment is a close two-way emotional bond between 2 individuals in which each sees the other as essential for their own emotional security
How can we recognize attachment? - AO1
- What are the 3 factors
- Proximity (staying physically close to the attachment figure)
- Separation distress (being upset when an attachment figure leaves)
- Secure-base behaviour (babies leaving the attachment figure but regularly returning to them when playing)
What are the two kinds of interactions? (AO1)
- Reciprocity
- Interactional synchrony
What is reciprocity? (AO1)
Description of how two people interact. Caregiver-infant interaction is reciprocal in that both caregiver and baby respond to each other’s signals and each elicits a response from the other.
How do actions involve reciprocity? (AO1)
- Reciprocity is achieved when a baby and caregiver respond to and elicit responses from each other.
- For example, a caregiver responds to a baby’s smile by saying something, and then the baby responds by making sounds of pleasure.
Why are alert phases time for interaction? (AO1)
- who researched this, method, results
- Mothers successfully respond around 2/3 of the time (Feldman and Eidelman, 2007)
- From around three months, this interaction becomes more intense and reciprocal.
How do babies have an active role? (AO1)
- Traditional views of childhood have seen the baby in a passive role, receiving care from an adult
- However, it seems that babies are active participants. Both caregiver and baby can initiate interactions and take turns to do so.
What is interactional synchrony? (AO1)
Caregiver and baby reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and do this in a coordinated (synchronised) way.
How do interactions involve synchrony? (AO1)
- who researched this, method, results
- People are said to be synchronised when they carry out the same action simultaneously
- A formal definition is ‘the temporal co-ordination of micro-level social behaviour’ (Feldman 2007) E.g. caregiver and baby mirror each others’ behaviour
When are the beginnings of interactional synchrony? (AO1)
- who researched this, method, results
- Meltzoff + Moore 1977 observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in babies as young as two weeks old.
- Adults displayed one of three facial expressions or more of three gestures. Filmed the baby’s response.
- Babies’ expressions and gestures were more likely to mirror those of the adults than chance would predict.
Explain the importance of interactional synchrony for attachment (AO1)
- who researched this, method, results
Isabella et al. (1989) observed 30 mothers and babies together and assessed the degree of synchrony.
Also assessed the quality of mother-baby attachment.
They found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother baby attachment (e.g. the emotional intensity of the relationship)
What is one strength of Caregiver Interaction research? (AO3)
One strength of the research on this topic is the use of filmed observation.
- Mother baby interactions are usually filmed, often from multiple angles. Very fine details of behaviour can be recorded and analysed later.
- So babies don’t know they’re being observed, so their behaviour does not change in response to observation (generally the main problem for observational research)
- This means the studies have good reliability and validity.
What is one limitation for caregiver interaction research? (AO3)
One limitation for the research is the difficulty in observing babies.
- It is hard to observe babies’ behaviour because they’re not very coordinated. We just observed small gestures and small changes in their expression.
- It is also hard to interpret the meaning of babies movements, e.g. deciding if a hand movement is a response to the caregiver or a random twitch.
What is another limitation for caregiver interaction research? (AO3)
Another limitation is difficulty inferring developmental importance.
- Feldman (2012) points out that synchrony (and reciprocity) simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
- These are robust phenomena in the sense that they can be reliably observed, but this may not be useful as it does not tell us their purpose.
- This means that we cannot be certain from observations that reciprocity or synchrony are important in development.
What is a counterpoint for this limitation? (AO3)
- There is some evidence from other sources, e.g. Isabella et al.(1989), to suggest that good levels of reciprocity and synchrony are associated with good quality attachments.
- this means that ,on balance, these early interactions are likely to have importance for development.
Explain and give the definition of the stages of attachment. (AO1)
Many developmental theories identify a sequence of qualitatively different behaviours linked to specific stages. In this case of ‘stages of attachment’, qualitatively different infant behaviours are linked to specific ages, and all babies go through them in the same order.
What is the definition of multiple attachments? (AO1)
Attachments to two or more people. Most babies appear to develop multiple attachments once they have formed one strong attachment to one of their carers.
What are the four stages of attachment? (AO1)
- Stage 1: Asocial stage (first few weeks)
- Stage 2: indiscriminate attachment (two-seven months)
- Stage 3: specific attachment (from around seven months)
- Stage 4: Multiple attachments (by one year)
What occurs in stage one of attachment? (AO1)
- Baby’s behaviour towards people and inanimate objects is quite similar.
- Some preference for familiar people (more easily calmed by them)
- Babies are also happier in the presence of other people.
What occurs in stage two of attachment? (AO1)
- Babies now display more observable social behaviour, with the preference for people rather than inanimate objects.
- They recognise and prefer familiar people.
- babies don’t show stranger or separation anxiety.
- Attachment is indiscriminate because it’s the same towards all.
What occurs in stage three of attachment? (AO1)
- Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety when separated from one particular person. Baby is said to have formed a specific attachment with the primary attachment figure.
- This is in most cases, the person who offers the most interaction and responds to the baby signals with the most skill (the mother in 65% of cases)
What occurs in stage four of attachment? (AO1)
- Secondary attachments with other adults form shortly after.
- In Schaffer and Emerson study, 29% had a secondary multiple attachment within a month of forming a primary specific attachment.
- By the age of 1 year, the majority of infants had multiple secondary attachments
What was the procedure of Schaffer and Emerson 1964 experiment on the stages of attachment? (AO1)
- Babies from Glasgow, most from working class families. Researchers visited babies and mothers at home every month for a year and again at 18 months.
- Separation anxiety measured by asking mothers about their children’s behaviours during everyday separation (e.g. adult leaving the room)
- Stranger anxiety was measured by asking mothers questions about their children’s anxiety in response to unfamiliar adults
What were the findings of Schaffer and Emerson 1964 experiment on the stages of attachment? (AO1)
- Babies developed attachments through a sequence of stages, from asocial through to a specific attachment to multiple attachments.
What were the conclusions of Schaffer and Emerson 1964 experiment on the stages of attachment? (AO1)
- The specific attachments tended to be to the person who was most interactive and sensitive to baby signals and facial expressions (i.e. reciprocity). This was not necessarily the person the baby spent most time with.
What is one strength of Schaffer + Emerson’s study on the stages of attachment? (AO3)
One strength is that the study has external validity.
- Most of the observations (not stranger anxiety) were made by parents during ordinary activities and reported to the researchers.
- The alternative would be to have observers present in their babies homes. This may have distracted the babies or made them feel more anxious.
- This means it is highly likely that the participants behave naturally while being observed.
What is the counterpoint of the strength of Schaffer + Emerson’s study on the stages of attachment? (AO3)
- Mothers may have been biased in what they reported, e.g. they may not have noticed when their baby was showing signs of anxiety or may have misremembered it.
- This means that even if babies behave naturally, their behaviour may not have been accurately recorded.
What is one limitation of Schaffer + Emerson’s study on the stages of attachment? (AO3)
One limitation is poor evidence for the asocial stage.
- Because of the stage of physical development, young babies have poor coordination and are fairly immobile.
- This makes it difficult for mothers to accurately report signs of anxiety and attachment for this age group.
- This means the babies might actually become social, but because of flawed methods, they appear to be asocial.
What is another strength of Schaffer + Emerson’s study on the stages of attachment? (AO3)
Another strength is real world application to day care.
- In the early stages (asocial and indiscriminate attachments) babies can be comforted by any skilled adult.
- But if a child starts day care later, during the stage of specific attachments, care from an unfamiliar adult may cause distress and longer-term problems.
- This means that Schaffer + Emerson’s stages can help parents making day care decisions.
What is the difference between a primary caregiver and a primary attachment figure? - AO1
A primary caregiver is the person who spends most time with the baby caring for its needs. A primary attachment figure is the person to whom the baby has the strongest attachment. Often the same person fulfils the two roles, but not always.
Is the primary attachment usually with mothers or fathers, can it sometimes be both? - AO1
- who researched this
- what were the results
Schaffer + Emerson (1964) found that the majority of babies become attached to their mother first. This happens around seven months.
- In only 3% of cases, the father was the first sole object of attachment.
- In 27% of cases, the father was the joint first object of attachment with the mother.
How many babies eventually form secondary attachments with their father,
- what’s the percentage? - AO1
- In 75% of babies studied, an attachment was formed with the father by the age of 18 months.
- This was indicated by the fact that babies protested when their father walked away, a sign of attachment.
What was the research into whether fathers may be less important in the long-term role of emotional development? - AO1
- Grossmann et al. (2002)
- Grossmann et al. (2002) carried out a longitudinal study looking at parents behaviour + its relationship to the quality of children’s attachment into their teens.
- This research found that the quality of attachment with the father was less important for adolescent attachment than the quality of attachment with the mother.
- Therefore, fathers may be less important in long term emotional development.
What was the research into the role that fathers may have in the life of their baby? - AO1
- Grossmann et al. (2002)
- Grossmann et al. also found that the quality of fathers’ play with babies was related to the quality of adolescent attachments.
- This suggests that fathers have a different role in attachment, one that is more to do with play + stimulation + less to do with emotional care.
Can fathers be primary figures? - AO1
- what was the research
- Some evidence suggests that when fathers do take on the role of being the main caregiver, they adopt behaviours more typical of mothers.
- Field (1978) filmed 4-month-old babies + found that primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating + holding babies rather than secondary caregiver fathers.
- These behaviours are related to interactional synchrony + the formation of an emotional attachment (Isabella et al. 1989)
What is the key to the attachment relationship between a caregiver and infant? - AO1
- Smiling, imitating + holding babies. Interactional synchrony or behaviours that are important in building a primary emotional attachment with a baby.
- So the father can be the more emotional attachment figure.
- The key to the attachment relationship is the level of responsiveness, not the gender of the parent.
What is one limitation of the research of the role of the father? - AO3
One limitation is confusion over research questions.
- Some psychologists want to understand the role of fathers as secondary attachment figures. But others are more concerned with fathers as a primary attachment figure
- The former have tended to see fathers as behaving differently from others + having a distinct role. The latter have found that fathers can take on a ‘maternal’ role.
- This means psychologists cannot easily answer the simple question: what is the role of the father.
What is another limitation of the research of the role of the father? - AO3
One limitation is conflicting evidence from different methodologies.
- Grossmann et al. (2002) suggests fathers have a distinct role in children’s development involving play + stimulation.
- However, McCallum + Golombok (2004) found that children without a father do not develop differently.
- This means the question of whether fathers have a distinctive role remains unanswered.
What is a counterpoint of one limitation of the research of the role of the father? - AO3
- Findings may not be in conflict. Fathers may typically take on particular roles in two parent heterosexual families. Other family structures adapt to not having fathers.
- This means that findings may be clear after all - there may be a distinctive role for fathers when present, but families adapt to not having one.
What is one strength of the research of the role of the father? - AO3
One strength is using findings in parenting advice.
- Mothers may feel pressured to stay at home + fathers to focus on work. This may not be the best solution for all families.
- Research on the flexibility of the role of the father can be used to offer reassuring advice to parents.
- This means that parental anxiety about the role of fathers can be reduced on parenting decisions made easier.
What was the procedure of Lorenz 1952 imprinting experiment? - AO1
Konrad Lorenz randomly divided a large clutch of goose eggs:
- 1/2 were hatched with the Mother Goose in their natural environment.
- The other half hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz.
Mixed all goslings together to see whom they would follow. Lorenz also observed birds on their later courtship behaviour.
What were the findings of Lorenz 1952 imprinting experiment? - AO1
Incubator group followed. Lorenz, the control group followed the mother.
What were the conclusions of Lorenz 1952 imprinting experiment? - AO1
Lorenz identified a critical period in which imprinting needs to take place e.g. a few hours after hatching.
If imprinting did not occur within that time, chicks did not attach themselves to the mother figure.
Sexual imprinting also occurs whereby the birds acquire a template of the desirable characteristics required in a mate.
What was the procedure of Harlow 1958 importance of contact comfort experiment? - AO1
Harry Harlow reared 16 rhesus monkeys with two wire model ‘mothers’.
- Condition 1 - Milk was dispensed by the plain-wire ‘mother’.
- Condition 2 - Milk was dispensed by the cloth-wire ‘mother’.
The monkeys’ preferences were measured.
- To measure attachment-like behaviour, Harlow observed how the monkeys reacted when placed in frightening situations.
- Harlow + his colleagues also continued to study the monkeys who had been deprived of their ‘real’ mother into adulthood.
What were the findings of Harlow 1958 importance of contact comfort experiment? - AO1
- Baby monkeys cuddled the cloth-covered mother in preference to the plain-wire mother, regardless of which dispensed milk.
- This suggests that contact comfort was of more important than food when it came to attachment behaviour.
- The monkeys sought comfort from the cloth-covered mother when frightened.
What were the conclusions of Harlow 1958 importance of contact comfort experiment? - AO1
As adults, the monkeys who had been deprived of their real mothers suffered severe consequences. They were more aggressive, less sociable + less skilled in mating than other monkeys.
What is one strength of Lorenz 1952 experiment on imprinting? - AO3
One strength is support for the concept of imprinting.
- Regolin + Vallortigara (1995) exposed chicks to simple shape-combinations that moved, before exposing them to difficult shape combinations
- When shown a range of moving shapes, the chicks followed the simples shapes in preference to the other shapes
- This suggests that young animals are born with an innate mechanism to imprint on a moving object.
What is one limitation of Lorenz 1952 experiment on imprinting? - AO3
One limitation is generalising from birds to humans.
- The mammalian attachment system is quite different from imprinting in birds.
- For example, mammalian mothers show more emotional attachment to their young.
- This means that it may not be appropriate to generalise Lorenz’s ideas about imprinting to humans.
What is another strength of Lorenz 1952 experiment on imprinting? (application to human behaviour) - AO3
- The concept of imprinting can explain some human behaviour.
- For example, ‘baby duck syndrome’ in which computer users become attached to their first operating system.
- Means that imprinting is a meaningful process in humans as well as birds.
What is one strength of Harlow’s 1958 experiment on the importance of contact comfort? - AO3
One strength is that Harlow’s research has real-world value.
- It has helped social workers understand risk factors in child abuse and thus intervened to prevent it (Howe 1988).
- We also now understand the importance of attachment figures for baby monkeys in zoos and breeding programmes.
- This means that Harlow’s research has benefited both animals and humans.
What is one limitation of Harlow’s 1958 experiment on the importance of contact comfort? - AO3
One limitation is generalising from monkeys to humans.
- Monkeys are clearly more similar to humans than Lorenz’s geese, and all mammals share some similarities in their attachment systems.
- However, they are not human and in some ways the human mind and behaviour are much more complex.
- This means that it may not be appropriate to generalise Harlow’s findings to humans
What are the ethical issues of Harlow’s 1958 experiment on the importance of contact comfort? - AO3
- Harlow’s procedures caused severe long-term distress to his monkey participants, though the research led to useful applications.
- However, his findings and conclusions have important theoretical and practical applications.
- This suggests that, in spite of its benefits, Harlow’s research perhaps should not have been carried out.
