Social Influence Flashcards
what is it meant by conformity
changing your behaviour/beliefs in response to real or perceived group pressure to fit into social rules and follow the majority influence
what are the 3 types of conformity
- compliance
- identification
- internalisation
what is compliance (is it public/private? how long is the change?)
- a public change of behaviour not beliefs
- a short term change that depends on the presence of people
what is identification (is it public/private? how long is the change?)
- a public and private change depending on its importance
- the change is temporary depending on the presence of people
what is internalisation (is it public/private? how long is the change?)
- a private and public change because the person has accepted the views
- it is a long-term change
why does compliance and identification occur
to be liked
why does internalisation occur
to be right
what type of conformity did Asch study, and when
compliance - 1951
what was Asch studying
researching whether ppts were affected by social pressure and conformed with the majority even when they know the answer is wrong
where was Asch’s research conducted
a lab in Swarthmore College in America
who were the ppts in Asch’s research
50 male students from Swarthmore College in America
what were ppts told the experiment was
a test on visual perception
how big was each group
8 (7 confederates with the ppt placed second to last)
how did the experiment take place
- ppts were asked to select which of the 3 lines was closest to the target line, and had to give their answers 1 by 1
- the confederates started by giving the correct answer, then started giving incorrect answers (the critical trials
how many normal and critical trials were there
18 normal, 12 critical
why did Asch use a control group
to emphasise the clear cause and effect (group pressure) and to measure ppts susceptibility to group pressure
what percentage of ppts conformed and gave an incorrect answer on at least 1 critical trial
74%
what was the average % of ppts that conformed to the critical trials
32%
what was the average % of ppts that conformed to the control trials
1%
what were the 2 most common reasons given for why ppts conformed
- in order to fit in
- thought they would be mocked
what are the 3 variables affecting conformity which Asch researched
- group size
- unanimity
- task difficulty
how did Asch change his study to see how group size affects conformity, and what was the impact
he increased the number of confederates that gave an incorrect answer each time, the more confederates, the more likely to conform (most significant change was from 2-3 confederates: 13.6% to 31.8%) however, when it reached 15 confederates, conformity began to decrease
how did Asch change his study to see how unanimity affects conformity, and what was the impact (2 ways)
- one confederate gave the correct answer throughout, and conformity decreased to 5%
- one confederate gave a different incorrect answer to the rest of the group and conformity decreased to 9%
how did Asch change his study to see how task difficulty affects conformity, and what was the impact
he made the lines more similar and harder to judge differences, and conformity increased
why does group size affect conformity
a larger group creates a bigger sense of unity, so it is harder to resist the group’s influence. however, after a certain point, Brown and Byrne (1997) suggest that ppts may start to become suspicious
why does unanimity affect conformity
since somebody else has casted doubt in the accuracy of the majority group, there is less need for social approval
why does task difficulty affect conformity
the more ambiguous a situation is, the more we look to others for guidance
what was the generalisability of Asch’s study
negative. the sample was unrepresentative since it shows ethnocentric and androcentric behaviours (only male American college students), this reduces its population validity
what was the reliability of Asch’s study
positive. the experiment was repeated and still worked with similar results because it was a controlled lab experiment which used standardised procedure to control extraneous variables
what is the applicability of Asch’s study
positive. it is applicable to help understand peer pressure
what was the validity of Asch’s study
good internal validity because EV were controlled, so there is a clear cause and effect
low ecological validity because the task has low mundane realism so ppts may act unnaturally
what were the ethics of Asch’s study
negative. the experiment was unethical because ppts were lied to. HOWEVER, whilst deception is wrong, it is useful to provide accurate results which do not display demand characteristics
what is minority influence
a form of social influence in which a small group rejects the established majority norm, causing the majority to change their beliefs and behaviours (conversion)
what type of conformity do the minority influence show and why
internalisation because they are going against the majority to be right (standing up for civil rights in the past despite the majority of people being racist)
is minority influence NSI or ISI
informational social influence
why is minority influence a slow process
they have to overcome the pressure of the majority, and then convert others
what locus of control do people in the minority influence have and why
internal because they are less conforming and make their own choices
what are the 3 features of a persuasive minority (CCF)
consistency
commitment
flexibility
what is flexibility and why is it persuasive
when the minority is willing to compromise and is open to the majority ideas to appear nicer and more approachable
this is persuasive as it makes the minority seem more reasonable and less extreme, so they were will be more respected
what is consistency and why is it persuasive
when the minority maintain the same viewpoint and do not change their ideas despite the majority
this is persuasive because it can create doubt in the majority if the minority appears more confident
what is commitment and why is it persuasive
when the minority is dedicated to their cause and willing to sacrifice for it (e.g. the suffragettes)
this is persuasive because engaging in extreme activities draws attention to the cause, proving their dedication, so the minority will therefore be taken more seriously and their ideas will be seen as more valid
what is diachronic consistency
consistency over time
what it synchronic consistency
consistency between members
what is the augmentation principle
the minority will be viewed as more serious if they sacrifice something
what was the sample used in Moscovici’s experiment and what is a weakness of this
32 groups of 6 women (gynocentric)
how did Moscovici ensure that the experiment was fair
every ppt was given an eye test to ensure that they were not colour blind
how many confederates were in each group in Moscovici’s experiment
6 in a group, 2 confederates
outline Moscovici’s experiment
ppts were shown 36 slides which were clearly different shades of blue, and asked to state the colour of each slide out loud
in the consistent condition of the experiment, the 2 confederates answered green for every slide
in the inconsistent condition of the experiment, the confederates answered green 24 times and blue 12 times
a control group with no confederates was also used
what are the results of Moscovivi’s experiment (control, consistent, inconsistent)
- only 0.25% of the control group’s responses were green
- 8.42% of ppts in the consistent condition answered green and 32% agreed at least once
- 1.25% of ppts in the inconsistent condition answered green
which process of minority influence does Moscovici’s experiment support and how
consistency - if the minority are more consistent, there is a higher chance that the majority will conform (8% compared to 1%)
outline Nemeth’s experiment
groups of 3 ppts and 1 confederate had to decide on the amount of compensation given to the victim of a ski-lift accident in a mock jury
when the minority (the 1 confederate) was argued for a very low amount and was refused to change his position (consistency), he had no effect on the majority
when the minority (the 1 confederate) compromised and moved some way towards the majority position (flexibility), the majority also changed their views
what process of minority influence does Nemeth’s research show and how
flexibility because the minority only converted the majority when he was willing to change his views and compromise
give a weakness of research evidence into minority influence
the research tends to be artificial in nature (e.g. you don’t often have to tell the colour of 36 slides). This means the research has low ecological validity and lacks mundane realism, so the results cannot be used to explain minority influence in real-world settings
give a different explanation for minority influence
Maas suggested that identification may also affect whether we are influenced by a majority because we tend to be more influenced by those who are similar to us (a homosexual arguing for homosexual rights was less persuasive than a heterosexual minority)
give a strength of understanding minority influence
good applicability because it can be used to train jurors, so this knowledge is highly useful in real-world scenarios
what does ‘social change’ refer to
the ways in which a society develops over time to change beliefs, attitudes, and behaviour as a result of new norms and expectations
give 4 examples of social change
acceptance to homosexuality
acceptance to feminism
change to eating trends
civil rights movement
why are minorities important when it comes to social change?
if people just followed the majority all the time, there would be no change or innovation
give an example of how the suffragettes bought about social change
they were committed and displayed augmentation:
- chained themselves to rails
- threw themselves in front of horses
- went through hunger strikes in prison
what is the most common way for a minority to become a majority
the snowball effect
outline the snowball effect
a cause which starts out small but grows over time (the minority will convince a few majority members to begin with, then once the minority has gained enough momentum, they will begin to convert the whole majority)
explain social cryptoamnnesia
over time, minority ideas become part of the majority viewpoint, despite being originally rejected
eventually, the minority views overpower the majority and a point is reached where the original minority becomes the majority
once this new minority has been internalised, people often forget that the view started from a dissenting minority because it is accepted as the social norm
because individuals may not want to identify with the minority since they originally saw them as an opposition, they dissociate their view from its original source to ease their cognitive dissonance
give a brief outline (1 sentence) to explain crypto amnesia
when people accept the new social norm (old minority) and forget where the original view came from
give the 6 steps to social change
- drawing attention to the issue
- minority influence begins through commitment, consistency, or flexibility
- the minority cause some members of the majority to question their majority viewpoint
- the snowball effect
- social cryptomnesia occurs
- legal reforms are implemented
give a strength of social change theory
there is supporting evidence:
Nolan conducted an experiment to see if NSI would reduce energy consumption in a community. Messages were placed on people’s front doors saying that most residents were trying to reduce their energy usage. In the control condition, the message just asked people to conserve their energy
There was a significant decrease in energy uses in the experimental group, proving the importance of NSI, and giving validity and applicability to the theory
give a weakness of the social change theory
the processes involved are not fully testable because other uncontrollable factors may influence the change (over a long period of time). so the theory cannot be scientifically proven as the cause and effect is unclear
what is obedience
a form of social influence where an individual acts in a certain way because of a direct, explicit order from a legitimate authority figure
what is the ‘Germans are different’ hypothesis
the belief after WW2 that Germans had a basic character deficit, which meant that they were extremely obedient to people in authority, despite the acts they were being made to carry out
what was milgrim interested in exploring
the German’s justification when accused of war crimes/genocides because many of them defended themselves by saying how they were ‘just following orders’
what was the aim of milgrim’s research study
to investigate a person’s obedience level when told by an authority figure to give an electric shock
what was Milgrim’s sample
40 males aged 20-50 (androcentric) from the New Haven applied for the experiment through volunteer sampling
briefly outline Milgrim’s research study
there were 2 confederates (the experimenter and the ‘learner’), but the ppt (the teacher) thought the learner and teacher roles were randomly allocated
the learner had to recall words that the teacher had given them, and if the learner was incorrect, the experimenter asked the teacher to give an electric shock to the learner
the shocks started at 15 volts and increased in 15 volt increments up to 450 volts
what happened if ppts in milgrim’s study refused to administer a shock
the experimenter gave the teacher a number of verbal prods which increased in severity:
please continue/go on
the experiment requires you to continue
it is absolutely essential that you continue
you have no other choice, you must go on
what were milgrim’s predicted results before the study
1 in 1000 ppts would administer the maximum shock level
what were the results of milgrims study
100% of ppts went up to 300 volts (the point the learner first stopped speaking)
65% of ppts continued to the fill 45 volts
some ppts demonstrated nervous signs (sweating, fiddling, asking for reassurance) and 2 had an epileptic fit
what conclusions can be made from milgrims research
ordinary people are likely to follow orders if these are given by an authority figure, even to the extent of murder
give 3 strengths of milgrams research
- good reliability because study was replicated with women and there were consistent findings
- good applicability because it allows us to challenge prejudices in society (like the Germans are different belief)
- good internal validity because it was in a controlled setting, and there were no demand characteristics since ppts thought it was a memory test
give 3 weaknesses of milgrams study
- low generalisability because it is androcentric and ethnocentric, which is not representative of society (did have a great variety of occupations though)
- unethical because ppts were made to believe they couldn’t leave, and some finished the experiment ore psychologically harmed than how they arrived
- low population validity because the study used a volunteer sample that people with shared characteristics would have applied to
what is meant by situational explanations for conformity and obedience
explanations which propose that behaviour is caused by external factors in the individual
what was the new obedience level in Milgram’s research when a confederate pressed the lever on behalf of the ppt
92%
what was the new obedience level in Milgram’s research when the teacher and learner were sat in the same room
40%
what was the new obedience level in Milgram’s research when the teacher had to hold the learners hand onto the shock plate
30%
what was the new obedience level in Milgram’s research when the experimenter gave the orders over the phone
21%
what was the new obedience level in Milgram’s research when the study was conducted in a run-down office building
48%
what was the new obedience level in Milgram’s research when the experimenter is ‘called away’ and replaced by someone in normal clothes
20%
what does being in an autonomous state mean
acting independently and having personal accountability and responsibility for actions
what does being in an agentic state mean
acting on behalf of someone else so therefore facing less personal responsibility for actions
when does someone experience the agentic shift
when given an order from an authority figure which they perceive as legitimate, we demonstrate diffusion of responsibility because we now believe the authority figure is responsible for our actions
when can you see agentic shift in milgrams research
when the experimenter accepted full responsibility for the learner, ppts continued
give examples of people who shift us into an agentic state from childhood
we are socialised into obedience from a young ag to figures such as
parents
teachers
police
why do people feel more willing to carry out destructive acts in an agentic state
they feel less responsibility and moral strain (which is caused by 2 conflicting emotions - the need to obey authority vs our moral consciousness. in an agentic state, moral consciousness is reduced so this feeling of strain is reduced)
what are binding factors
things/aspects that keep people in the agentic state
give 2 examples of binding factors
- the pressure of the authority figure
- the legitimacy of the authority figure
what supporting evidence is there to back the agentic state theory
Hofling found that 21 out of 22 nurses obeyed a telephone order from an unknown number which ordered them to give an overdose of an unfamiliar drug to a patient. the nurses were acting in an agentic state to diffuse their responsibility, and this study has good ecological validity, suggesting the theory is credible
what opposing evidence is there against the agentic state theory
Rank and Jacobsen replicated Hofling’s research with a drug that was known to the nurses and 16 out of 18 disobeyed. This suggests that the theory may lack validity
give a weakness of the agentic state theory
it presents a deterministic explanation for behaviour because is proposes the idea that our behaviour is caused the environment and childhood experiences. this would mean that we have little control and just unthinkingly follow orders which could lead to distress for people in society. therefore, we should use the theory to explain but not excuse behaviour
give a strength of the agentic state theory
it has good applicability because it can be used to educate the public on the dangers of destructive obedience and show understanding on how ordinary people can unthinkingly become participants in atrocities such as the holocaust. however this should not be used as an excuse
when do people see authority figures as legitimate
when we trust them
when they have the power to punish
how can legitimacy of authority be recognised through visual cues (and give an example)
if the visual cues act as symbols of power (police uniform/car etc.)
which of milgrams variations could be used to support the legitimacy of authority as an explanation for obedience
when the experimenter changed clothes obedienc levels dropped from 65% to 20%.
this proves that the researcher’s grey coat acted as a symbol of power to prove his authority, therefore making the theory valid
what evidence is there to oppose the legitimacy of authority
Rank and Jacobsen’s research with nurses (only 2 out of 18 obeyed):
despite the doctor being legitimately higher than the nurses on the social hierarchy, the nurses did not obey his orders therefore the theory’s validity is questionable
give a weakness of the legitimacy of authority theory
it presents a deterministic explanation of behaviour because it proposes that our behaviour will happen naturally/unconsciously. this means that people may not be held accountable for their behaviour, so the theory cannot be used to excuse, only explain
give a strength of the legitimacy of authority theory
good applicability because during the holocaust, many germans committed atrocious acts because they were taught that german people were superior to Jewish people.
soldiers are expected to obey every order given to them due to the social hierarchy in the military, and this is useful to explain the obedience within war atrocities
what are the 3 situational variables affecting how obedient people are
location, proximity, uniform
how did Milgram investigate the 3 situational variables
location - moved the study to a run-down office with no obvious affiliation to Yale, and obedience decreased from 65% to 48%
proximity (2 variations) - experimenter gave the orders by phone (increasing proximity) and obedience decreased from 65% to 21%
the teacher and learner were in the same room and the teacher had to force the learner’s hand on the shock plate, obedience dropped from 65% to 40% then 30%
uniform - Milgram ‘called the experimenter away’ and he was replaced by a confederate in ordinary clothes. the obedience dropped from 65% to 20%
why does location have an impact of obedience levels
it can impact the legitimacy/credibility of the authority figure (more ‘official’ locations will lead to more respected authority figures), so location acts as a binding factor
why does proximity have an impact of obedience levels
when the PPT is closer to the authority figure, obedience levels rise because it puts a greater sense of pressure on PPTs, but when the PPT is closer to the victim, obedience levels drop because the PPT feels more accountable for their actions
why does uniform have an impact of obedience levels
uniform can act as a symbol of authority to show how much power a person has over us (like policemen). these visual cues can legitimise someones authority, so ppts are more likely to stay in an agentic state
what other supporting evidence is there to prove that situational variables do impact obedience
Bushman and Bickman provide evidence in a real-world setting by isolating the uniform variable. They found that PPTs were obedient to the confederates in an official uniform, suggesting that situational variables have an impact on obedience in the real world (good ecological validity, unlike Milgram), so it gives validity to the theory
what other opposing evidence is there to prove that situational variables do not impact obedience
Elms and Milgram replicated Milgrams original study but gave ppts a questionnaire to test whether they had an authoritarian personality (have a great respect for obedience)
PPTs who placed highly on the test had a high obedience rate, suggesting that situational variables are more dispositional than situational
give a weakness of situational variables
present a deterministic explanation of behaviour because it suggests that our behaviour is down to the environment
give a strength of situational variables
they are practical applications such as the police force since people know to obey the police, so this may result in more obedient communities due to closer proximity and safety in the community
what did Adorno propose as an explanation ofobedience
a dispositional explanation
what does having a dispositional explanation mean
a person’s personality can be associated with a higher tendency for obedience
give 5 characteristics that are associated with having an authoritarian personality
- hostile to those in an inferior status
- submissive to this in a higher status
- rigid in their opinions and beliefs
- prejudiced against minority groups
- often hold conventional and traditional views (right wing)
how did Adorno propose that people with Authoritarian develop these
strict upbringings with overly harsh and critical parents
what did Adorno base his research on
correlational research from his f-scale (fascism) questionnaire
outline and evaluate Adorno’s method
he sent his questionnaire to 2000 American ppts from all different ages and professions to measure traits of authoritarianism (this had good sample size and generalisability, but is ethnocentric)
he are also conducted clinical interviews about their childhood, and these 2 variables were correlated
what results did Adorno find
he identified a set of characteristics which he labelled the authoritarian personality:
- hostile to inferior statuses but obedient to higher statuses
- rigid in opinions
- traditional, often prejudiced views
These PPTs also tended to report a stricter upbringing
what supporting evidence is there to prove the authoritarian personality theory, but what is the issue with these research findings
Elms and Milgram found that more obedient ppts scored highly on the f-scale questionnaire which suggests that those who are obedient have a more authoritarian personality
however, the findings are correlational, so you cannot establish a clear cause and effect, so whilst the theory seems valid, there is no evidence to prove its causation
what opposing evidence is there against the authoritarian personality theory
dispositional explanations cannot account for prejudices on a large scale, for example, the levels of antisemitism within the holocaust would not be down to dispositional explanations because it is unlikely that mass people would have 1 particular personality type
give a weakness of the authoritarian personality theory (not opposing evidence)
the theory is seen as deterministic and believes that our behaviour is not within our conscious control and instead is due to an individual personality and childhood experiences
give a strength of the authoritarian personality (not supporting evidence)
good applicability because you can see evidence of authoritarianism in real-world political events, such as Donald Trump’s rise in popularity and election
what are the 2 explanations for resisting social influence
social support
locus of control
is social support a situational or dispositional explanation?
situational
is locus of control a situational or dispositional explanation?
dispositional (based on personality)
what is social support perceived as
having assistance and solidarity available from others to help resist normative social influence because people feel they are not alone and validated
why is social support situational
it depends on the social context and presence of people
what evidence is there to support the idea of social support
in one of Asch’s variations on unanimity he showed that when a confederate did not conform and gave the correct answer, conformity levels decreased from 32% to 5.5%, suggesting that social supporters do help us resist conformity
give a limitation of research studies into the effects of social support on resisting social influence
they are often artificial in nature because they are performed in controlled labs and lacking in mundane realism (so have low ecological validity), so they don’t give information for real world settings
why does social support lead to resisting social influence
having an ally allows us to feel more confident in our opinion because it reduces the fear of ridicule or social rejection
who proposed the explanation of the locus of control
Rotter 1966
what does the term locus of control refer to
how much control a person feels that they have only their own behaviour
what are the 2 locus’ of control
external and internal
what does it mean to have an internal locus of control
the person perceives themselves as having a high level of control over their behaviour, so are more likely to have control over their own actions
what does it mean to have an external locus of control
the person perceives themselves as having little control over their behaviour (down to fate/the environment), therefore they are less likely to take responsibility for their own actions
what supporting evidence is there to prove the locus of control theory
Oliner and Oliner interviewed non-Jewish survivors who protected Jewish people from the Nazi’s and found that the 406 protectors had a higher locus of control, showing that people with internal locus’s of control believe that they had control over their behaviour so could resist obedience
therefore, the theory has validity, but this could be questioned because the theory is retrospective
what opposing evidence is there to disprove the locus of control theory
Twenge et al analysed American obedience studies over 40 years and these showed that people became more resistant to obedience, but had a more external locus of control, questioning the theory’s validity
weakness of the social support and locus of control theories
they are overly simplistic (cannot account for individual differences and external factors)
