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Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Hypothesis Definition

A

An educated guess

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2
Q

Independent Variable Definition

A

The variable you change

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3
Q

Dependant Variable Definition

A

The variable you measure

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4
Q

Extraneous Variable Definition

A

Variables which may affect the study

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5
Q

Participant Sample Definition

A

The people you are studying

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6
Q

Quantitative Definition

A

Numerical data to make predictions of behaviour

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7
Q

What is a ‘true’ experiment a study of

A

Difference

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8
Q

What kind of approach do experiments take

A

Nomothentic

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9
Q

How do researchers keep experiments highly controlled?

A

They deliberately manipulate one variable whilst trying to keep all other variables constant

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10
Q

What are the 4 types of experiments?

A

Laboratory
Field
Quasi
Natural

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11
Q

Features of a lab experiment

A

Conducted in a controlled environment (set up by the researcher - an artificial setting)
The researcher directly controls the IV

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12
Q

Features of a field experiment

A

Conducted in a real-world setting (realistic environment)
The researcher directly controls the IV

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13
Q

Features of a quasi experiment

A

The researcher has no control over the IV as it’s an individual’s characteristic (gender, e.g.)
The researcher can put a task into place to measure the DV
The researcher has some control over the EV’s

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14
Q

What does a Quasi experiment focus on

A

The characteristics of a person

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15
Q

Features of a natural experiment

A

The researcher has no control over the IV as it’s naturally occurring (e.g. the effects of life events)
The DV is naturally occurring
The researcher has little control over the EV’s

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16
Q

What does a natural experiment focus on

A

Life events a person has faced (e.g., the effects of COVID on children’s speech)

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17
Q

What does validity refer to

A

The accuracy of research findings

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18
Q

Internal validity definition

A

Whether the research accurately measures what it claims to

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19
Q

What does temporal validity focus on

A

The time of the research (political context and attitudes of the time)

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19
Q

What does reliability focus on in Psychology?

A

How consistent the results are

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20
Q

External validity defintion

A

Whether the research findings can be accurately generalised beyond the study itself

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21
Q

What does population validity focus on

A

People - their sex, age, job etc.

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22
Q

What does ecological validity focus on

A

The environment and realisticness of a task

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23
Q

What does validity focus on in Psychology?

A

The accuracy of the results

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24
Q

Can lab experiments be replicated?

A

Yes - they use standardised procedure and happen in highly controlled setting to limit EV’s

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25
Q

Why are lab experiments low in ecological validity

A

They take place in controlled settings which are unnatural to the participant

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26
Q

Why are lab experiments high in internal validity?

A

The EV’s are strictly controlled so it is clear what the cause and effect of the experiment is

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27
Q

Why are lab experiments low in internal validity?

A

Participants may show demand characteristics because they know they are being tested, so might try to behave in a certain way

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28
Q

Why are field experiments low in reliability

A

Despite using standardised procedure, they take place in real-world settings which may be unpredictable and harder to replicate

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29
Q

Do field experiments have high or low ecological validity

A

High - they take place in natural environments so participants behaviour may be more realistic

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30
Q

Why are field experiments high in internal validity?

A

Demand characteristics are less likely so participants behaviour will be more realistic

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31
Q

Why are field experiments low in internal validity?

A

There are no control over the EV’s so you cannot establish the cause and effect of the experiment

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32
Q

Why are there some ethical issues regarding field experiments

A

Participants may not be aware they’re being tested which raises the issue of informed consent

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33
Q

Are quasi-experiments low or high in internal validity and why

A

Low - random allocation of participants is not possible because the IV is the characteristic of a person that cannot be manipulated

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34
Q

Strengths of natural experiments (3 points)

A

Allows researchers to investigate topics that would otherwise be unethical
Extremely high ecological validity because the researcher can study ‘real’ problems and phenomenons
Demand characteristics are greatly reduced because participants are unaware they are taking part, so will act more naturally

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35
Q

Limits of natural experiments (3 points)

A

No control over the environment which reduces the internal validity of the results
Ethical guidelines of informed consent are needed and participants can withdraw from the experiment afterwards, meaning fewer results to base data off
The natural events studied are rare so it’s almost impossible to replicate the research findings for reliability

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36
Q

What is the learning approach

A

The suggestion that people learn from observing their role models by attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation

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37
Q

Strengths of the learning approach

A

Supported by evidence and research to prove that it’s reliable
Can be used to treat phobias

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38
Q

Weaknesses of the learning approach

A

No other factors are accounted for
Undermines human’s mental processes and genetic functions

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39
Q

What is the humanistic approach?

A

The belief that choices are not determined by biological or other external factors, instead by people’s subjectivity

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40
Q

Strengths of the humanistic approach

A

The new studies have given rise to a new way to look at people’s needs
Proposes a positive idea about human nature

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41
Q

Weaknesses of the humanistic approach

A

Data is impossible to replicate because it’s based on people’s observations
Results may not be very realistic

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42
Q

What is the cognitive approach

A

The idea that our mental processes affect our behaviour by focusing on how the brain inputs, stores, and retrieves information

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43
Q

Strengths of the cognitive approach

A

Reliable results because the lab experiments are controlled and replicable
There is a wide range of practical applications to show eyewitness accuracy

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44
Q

Weaknesses of the cognitive approach

A

Lacks ecological validity because the tasks are artificial
Reductionist

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45
Q

What is the psychodynamic approach?

A

The idea assumes that all behaviour can be explained in terms of the mind’s inner conflict. It is believed that the unconscious mind and childhood experiences determine our behaviour

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46
Q

Strengths of the psychodynamic approach

A

Takes both nature and nurture into account
Focuses on the influence of childhood experiences which are proved to be influential

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47
Q

Weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach

A

Methods lack objectivity since 2 researchers can get different results
Determinist as it rejects the idea of free will

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48
Q

What is the biological approach?

A

The idea which assumes that our thinking and behaviour are strongly determined by biological factors, e.g. the structure of the nervous system

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49
Q

Strengths of the biological approach

A

Data can be replicated because it’s objective
The approach has real-life applications

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50
Q

Weaknesses of the biological approach

A

Determinist - behaviour is caused by factors out of our control
Reductionist

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51
Q

What is sampling

A

the various ways in which researchers select participants for their study

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52
Q

What is the target population

A

The specific group of people from the whole population you want to study (e.g. teenagers)

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53
Q

What is the sample

A

The smaller group you actually select from the Target Population to participate in the study (e.g. blonde, 17-year-old teens)

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54
Q

What are the 5 types of sampling?

A

Random
Systematic
Stratified
Opportunity
Volunteer

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55
Q

What is volunteer sampling

A

Participants put themselves forward to be included (self-select themselves)

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56
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

A list of possible participants is made, and every nth person is chosen until the correct sample size is produced

57
Q

What is opportunity sampling

A

Researcher asks people who are in the right place at the right time (you’ll do)

58
Q

What is stratified sampling

A

Sampling to reflect the target population (e.g. if 60% male and 40% female of 100 people are needed, 6 males and 4 females will be chosen from a sample of 10)

59
Q

What is random sampling

A

A list of possible participants is made and then participants are randomly selected (names out of a hat etc.) until the correct sample size is created

60
Q

Advantages of random sampling

A
  • representative (no control over selection to reduce chance of biased sample selection) therefore improving the population validity
61
Q

Disadvantages of random sampling

A
  • can be difficult and time-consuming to make the list
  • a representative sample is not guaranteed
62
Q

Advantages of opportunity sampling

A
  • sample is easy to obtain
  • cheap (people are readily available)
63
Q

Disadvantages of opportunity sampling

A
  • unrepresentative (ppts likely to share similar characteristics) which reduces population validity
  • ethical issues (participants may feel pressure to take part)
64
Q

Advantages of volunteer sampling

A
  • saves time because it’s easy to locate a specific group of people
65
Q

Disadvantages of volunteer sampling

A
  • lacks generalisability because people are self-selected (limited population validity)
  • may be representative (certain type of people put themselves forward)
66
Q

Advantages of researcher bias

A
  • avoids researcher bias (no influence over who is chosen) so more valid + representative
67
Q

Disadvantages of researcher bias

A
  • random selection so some groups may be over or under-represented
68
Q

Advantages of stratified sampling

A
  • avoids researcher bias because the selection is random, so is more representative (higher population validity)
69
Q

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

A
  • time-consuming (got to find out details about the target population + divide ppts into strata)
  • not completely representative (random selection so some groups may be over or under-represented)
70
Q

What are control measures and why are they used?

A

Strategies that a researcher may put in place to minimise the impact of extraneous variables

71
Q

What are the 4 types of extraneous variables?

A
  • participant
  • situational
  • investigator effects
  • demand characteristics
72
Q

Why do researchers put control into place?

A

To establish greater cause and effect (creates higher internal validity)

73
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

When the order of the conditions are mixed up

74
Q

Effects of counterbalancing

A

order effects are equal across both conditions so their negative effect is greatly reduced

75
Q

What is randomisation?

A

When items/stimuli/tasks are presented to participants in a random order

76
Q

Effects of randomisation

A
  • avoids systematic errors
  • reduces bias as the researcher has no control over the order
77
Q

What is standardisation?

A

The process when procedures are kept the same for all participants

78
Q

Effects of stanardisation

A

Keeps process identical for everyone so experiment can be repeated

79
Q

How to control participant variables

A
  • use a large, representative sample
  • randomly allocate participants
  • repeated measures design
  • matched pairs design
80
Q

How to control situational variables

A
  • ensure all participants are treated in the same way
  • use a script or written instructions
81
Q

How to control experimenter effects

A
  • double-blind experiment
  • random allocation
  • written instructions (no investigator needed)
82
Q

How to control demand characteristics

A
  • deceit the ppts (tell them the aim is different)
  • independent groups design
  • distractor questions
  • double-blind
83
Q

what is a pilot study

A

a smaller, trial run of the experiment to assess its feasibility before researchers commit to conducting the study

84
Q

why is doing a pilot study useful

A
  • helps to improve the validity of the research
  • helps researchers to see if they are wasting their time
85
Q

where do pilot studies identify problems (4 things):

A
  • the method/design
  • instructions given to ppts
  • procedure followed by ppts
  • materials used by ppts
86
Q

what is the floor effect and why might it occur

A

if the task is too hard and none of the participants score at all/score very low

87
Q

what is the ceiling effect and why might it occur

A

if the task is too easy and all participants achieve virtually full marks

88
Q

how do pilot studies help floor or ceiling effects

A

pilot studies allow researchers to see if the task is an appropriate level

89
Q

who are pilot studies usually carried out on (and why)

A

people who are different from the ppts but still in the target population
- this gives valid results without the chance of demand characteristics in the experiment

90
Q

what are questionnaires

A

a written set of fixed questions for participants with little interaction between the researcher and the participant
(less chance for demand characteristics/investigator bias and increased reliability because questions are replicable - standardised procedure)

91
Q

why would the researcher not being present at an experiment be a disadvantage

A

can’t answer questions - therefore ppts may perform tasks incorrectly/guess, giving inaccurate results

92
Q

what is an advantage of face-to-face questionnaires

A

participants feel pressure to complete, which increases the data collected

93
Q

what is a disadvantage of face-to-face questionnaires

A

ppts may face investigator effects and therefore may give incorrect, wrong answers, creating inaccurate results

94
Q

what is an advantage of online questionnaires

A
  • larger sample size
  • time effective
  • accessible
  • if it’s anonymous, ppts may feel more able to reveal personal information which leads to more valid answers
95
Q

what is a disadvantage of online questionnaires

A
  • people may ignore/forget to complete
96
Q

what are open questions

A

questions which allow ppts to answer in their own words (qualitative data which shows more depth and detail)

97
Q

what are closed questions

A

questions which force ppts to select an answer from given options (quantitative data which gives a clear answer)

98
Q

what is a likert scale

A

a closed question where ppts choose a value on a scale that represents their view/opinion

99
Q

what are leading questions

A

questions asked by the researcher which may point to a specific answer, therefore affecting validity

100
Q

what is the acquiescence bias

A

when respondents unconsciously answer in a way which agrees with the question, leading to decreased validity

101
Q

why do questionnaires often have low population validity

A

there may be a sample bias because certain types of people will willingly participate in questionnaires, and these people often have similar characteristics/interests

102
Q

what is it called when ppts respond with answers that show themselves in the best light - and why is this a disadvantage for survey’s?

A

social desirability bias - may lead to results that are not entirely valid because responses may be lies

103
Q

what is an interview

A

a social interaction between the researcher (trained) and the participant

104
Q

what are the 3 types of interviews

A
  • structured
  • unstructured
  • semi-structured
105
Q

what is a structured interview

A

an interview with fixed, predetermined questions used in larger scale situations

106
Q

what is an unstructured interview

A

an interview about a certain topic area, but with no set questions (questions are based on the ppts previous answers). the researcher can also help and clarify things for ppts

107
Q

what is a semi-structured interview

A

an interview where the researcher has guidelines to follow for questions but can choose the time allocated for each questions, and the phrasing for each question

108
Q

what things do you need to consider when planning an interview?

A
  • open or closed questions?
  • structured/ unstructured/ semi-structured?
  • is there potential for social desirability bias?
  • what ethical issues could arise
  • how will you record information
109
Q

why might ppts demonstrate social desirability bias in interviews and how can you stop this

A
  • people want to be perceived in a better way
  • ensure people of anonymity so they feel more comfortable disclosing their true feelings
110
Q

why is social desirability bias an issue in interviews

A

people may lie and therefore give invalid answers

111
Q

why might ppts demonstrate acquiescence bias in interviews

A

people like to be perceived as agreeable and therefore please others by giving ‘correct answers’

112
Q

why is acquiescence bias an issue

A

validity

113
Q

why are interviews more suitable to discuss sensitive topics

A
  • researchers can offer ppts reassurance and create a safer space
  • the interview can stop if the ppts is too distressed (more ethical)
114
Q

why is there low inter-rater reliability between interviewers

A
  • may perform investigator effects
  • interviewers are all different
  • interviewers may present themselves differently for different ppts
115
Q

what is inter-rater reliability

A

reliability between ppts or interviewers (how consistent the results are)

116
Q

what kind of data do interviews tend to gather (and a strength of this)

A

qualitative data - can gain a more in-depth understanding of ppts because of their more detailed answers

117
Q

why does qualitative data often lead to lower validity

A

investigators could all interpret the answers differently meaning the results would be inaccurate/biased and more subject to investigator bias

118
Q

why are interviews time consuming

A
  • only study 1 at a time
  • qualitative data takes longer to analyse
  • have to transcribe if audio recording data or rewrite notes if typing
119
Q

why is it an issue that interviews can be time consuming

A

researcher might have to use a smaller samples which reduces population validity because the sample is less representative

120
Q

what is qualitative data

A

non-numerical data which explores subjective experiences and attitudes and produces detailed descriptions

121
Q

what is quantitative data

A

numerical, objective data which can be used to make predictions and identify patterns

122
Q

why is quantitative data high in validity

A

it is more objectively analysed so less interpretation is involved and comparisons/results can be drawn more easily between data sets

123
Q

why is quantitative data low in validity

A

ppts may be forced to select answers which don’t represent their beliefs which leads to inaccurate data

124
Q

is quantitative data scientifically objective or not? (and why if so)

A

yes - numerical data can be interpreted using statistical analysis which is free from bias and interpretation, so high in objectivity

125
Q

is qualitative data subjective or not? (and why if so)

A

yes - the data is detailed and cannot be compared so is therefore open to bias and interpretation and is less scientifically objective (more subjective)

126
Q

which type of data is more time and cost effective and why

A

quantitative - methods to gather info immediately produce the information which can be easily compared and analysed quickly

127
Q

which type of data is more reliable and why

A

quantitative because it is based on numerical, measured values which can be easily replicated

128
Q

what is a correlation

A

a form of analysis to see the extent to which 2 different variables are ‘related’ (as one changes, does the other change?)

129
Q

give an example of variables that can be measured using a correlation

A

number of hours revised, number of marks gained in an exam

130
Q

what is a positive correlation

A

as variable 1 increases, variable 2 increases

131
Q

what is a negative correlation

A

as variable 1 increases, variable 2 decreases

132
Q

how are correlations presented

A

using a scatter graph

133
Q

what is the relationship coefficient for a perfect positive correlation

A

+1

134
Q

what is the relationship coefficient for a perfect negative correlation

A

-1

135
Q

what is the relationship coefficient for no correlation

A

0

136
Q

what does a correlation coefficient measure

A

the strength of the relationship by seeing how closely the results follow a set, predictable pattern

137
Q

what is the difference between a directional correlational hypothesis and a non-directional correlational hypothesis

A

directional - specifies whether the relationship will be positive or negative
non-directional - says that ‘there will be a relationship between the 2 variables’

138
Q

what must a correlational hypothesis include

A
  • both variables (operationalised)
  • the word significant
139
Q

positives of correlations

A
  • allow us to investigate unethical situations without causing harm to ppts
  • can lead to new research and be used as a starting point to see whether the research is worth carrying out
  • control for participant variables because the data comes from the same person (natural control over any individual differences)
140
Q

negatives of correlations

A
  • they do not show causation so we cannot establish cause and effect
  • there may be validity issues because another untested variable may be impacting the relationship

Psychology (7 decks)

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