Research Methods Flashcards
Part 1: 1-36, Part 2: 52-90, Part 3: 91-128, Part 4: 145-176, Part 5: 129-141
Hypothesis Definition
An educated guess
Independent Variable Definition
The variable you change
Dependant Variable Definition
The variable you measure
Extraneous Variable Definition
Variables which may affect the study
Participant Sample Definition
The people you are studying
Quantitative Definition
Numerical data to make predictions of behaviour
What is a ‘true’ experiment a study of
Difference
What kind of approach do experiments take
Nomothentic
How do researchers keep experiments highly controlled?
They deliberately manipulate one variable whilst trying to keep all other variables constant
What are the 4 types of experiments?
Laboratory
Field
Quasi
Natural
Features of a lab experiment
Conducted in a controlled environment (set up by the researcher - an artificial setting)
The researcher directly controls the IV
Features of a field experiment
Conducted in a real-world setting (realistic environment)
The researcher directly controls the IV
Features of a quasi experiment
The researcher has no control over the IV as it’s an individual’s characteristic (gender, e.g.)
The researcher can put a task into place to measure the DV
The researcher has some control over the EV’s
What does a Quasi experiment focus on
The characteristics of a person
Features of a natural experiment
The researcher has no control over the IV as it’s naturally occurring (e.g. the effects of life events)
The DV is naturally occurring
The researcher has little control over the EV’s
What does a natural experiment focus on
Life events a person has faced (e.g., the effects of COVID on children’s speech)
What does validity refer to
The accuracy of research findings
Internal validity definition
Whether the research accurately measures what it claims to
What does temporal validity focus on
The time of the research (political context and attitudes of the time)
What does reliability focus on in Psychology?
How consistent the results are
External validity defintion
Whether the research findings can be accurately generalised beyond the study itself
What does population validity focus on
People - their sex, age, job etc.
What does ecological validity focus on
The environment and realisticness of a task
What does validity focus on in Psychology?
The accuracy of the results
Can lab experiments be replicated?
Yes - they use standardised procedure and happen in highly controlled setting to limit EV’s
Why are lab experiments low in ecological validity
They take place in controlled settings which are unnatural to the participant
Why are lab experiments high in internal validity?
The EV’s are strictly controlled so it is clear what the cause and effect of the experiment is
Why are lab experiments low in internal validity?
Participants may show demand characteristics because they know they are being tested, so might try to behave in a certain way
Why are field experiments low in reliability
Despite using standardised procedure, they take place in real-world settings which may be unpredictable and harder to replicate
Do field experiments have high or low ecological validity
High - they take place in natural environments so participants behaviour may be more realistic
Why are field experiments high in internal validity?
Demand characteristics are less likely so participants behaviour will be more realistic
Why are field experiments low in internal validity?
There are no control over the EV’s so you cannot establish the cause and effect of the experiment
Why are there some ethical issues regarding field experiments
Participants may not be aware they’re being tested which raises the issue of informed consent
Are quasi-experiments low or high in internal validity and why
Low - random allocation of participants is not possible because the IV is the characteristic of a person that cannot be manipulated
Strengths of natural experiments (3 points)
Allows researchers to investigate topics that would otherwise be unethical
Extremely high ecological validity because the researcher can study ‘real’ problems and phenomenons
Demand characteristics are greatly reduced because participants are unaware they are taking part, so will act more naturally
Limits of natural experiments (3 points)
No control over the environment which reduces the internal validity of the results
Ethical guidelines of informed consent are needed and participants can withdraw from the experiment afterwards, meaning fewer results to base data off
The natural events studied are rare so it’s almost impossible to replicate the research findings for reliability
What is the learning approach
The suggestion that people learn from observing their role models by attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
Strengths of the learning approach
Supported by evidence and research to prove that it’s reliable
Can be used to treat phobias
Weaknesses of the learning approach
No other factors are accounted for
Undermines human’s mental processes and genetic functions
What is the humanistic approach?
The belief that choices are not determined by biological or other external factors, instead by people’s subjectivity
Strengths of the humanistic approach
The new studies have given rise to a new way to look at people’s needs
Proposes a positive idea about human nature
Weaknesses of the humanistic approach
Data is impossible to replicate because it’s based on people’s observations
Results may not be very realistic
What is the cognitive approach
The idea that our mental processes affect our behaviour by focusing on how the brain inputs, stores, and retrieves information
Strengths of the cognitive approach
Reliable results because the lab experiments are controlled and replicable
There is a wide range of practical applications to show eyewitness accuracy
Weaknesses of the cognitive approach
Lacks ecological validity because the tasks are artificial
Reductionist
What is the psychodynamic approach?
The idea assumes that all behaviour can be explained in terms of the mind’s inner conflict. It is believed that the unconscious mind and childhood experiences determine our behaviour
Strengths of the psychodynamic approach
Takes both nature and nurture into account
Focuses on the influence of childhood experiences which are proved to be influential
Weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach
Methods lack objectivity since 2 researchers can get different results
Determinist as it rejects the idea of free will
What is the biological approach?
The idea which assumes that our thinking and behaviour are strongly determined by biological factors, e.g. the structure of the nervous system
Strengths of the biological approach
Data can be replicated because it’s objective
The approach has real-life applications
Weaknesses of the biological approach
Determinist - behaviour is caused by factors out of our control
Reductionist
What is sampling
the various ways in which researchers select participants for their study
What is the target population
The specific group of people from the whole population you want to study (e.g. teenagers)
What is the sample
The smaller group you actually select from the Target Population to participate in the study (e.g. blonde, 17-year-old teens)
What are the 5 types of sampling?
Random
Systematic
Stratified
Opportunity
Volunteer
What is volunteer sampling
Participants put themselves forward to be included (self-select themselves)
What is systematic sampling
A list of possible participants is made, and every nth person is chosen until the correct sample size is produced
What is opportunity sampling
Researcher asks people who are in the right place at the right time (you’ll do)
What is stratified sampling
Sampling to reflect the target population (e.g. if 60% male and 40% female of 100 people are needed, 6 males and 4 females will be chosen from a sample of 10)
What is random sampling
A list of possible participants is made and then participants are randomly selected (names out of a hat etc.) until the correct sample size is created
Advantages of random sampling
- representative (no control over selection to reduce chance of biased sample selection) therefore improving the population validity
Disadvantages of random sampling
- can be difficult and time-consuming to make the list
- a representative sample is not guaranteed
Advantages of opportunity sampling
- sample is easy to obtain
- cheap (people are readily available)
Disadvantages of opportunity sampling
- unrepresentative (ppts likely to share similar characteristics) which reduces population validity
- ethical issues (participants may feel pressure to take part)
Advantages of volunteer sampling
- saves time because it’s easy to locate a specific group of people
Disadvantages of volunteer sampling
- lacks generalisability because people are self-selected (limited population validity)
- may be representative (certain type of people put themselves forward)
Advantages of systematic sampling
- avoids researcher bias (no influence over who is chosen) so more valid + representative
Disadvantages of systematic sampling
- random selection so some groups may be over or under-represented
Advantages of stratified sampling
- avoids researcher bias because the selection is random, so is more representative (higher population validity)
Disadvantages of stratified sampling
- time-consuming (got to find out details about the target population + divide ppts into strata)
- not completely representative (random selection so some groups may be over or under-represented)
What are control measures and why are they used?
Strategies that a researcher may put in place to minimise the impact of extraneous variables
What are the 4 types of extraneous variables?
- participant
- situational
- investigator effects
- demand characteristics
Why do researchers put control into place?
To establish greater cause and effect (creates higher internal validity)
What is counterbalancing?
When the order of the conditions are mixed up
Effects of counterbalancing
order effects are equal across both conditions so their negative effect is greatly reduced
What is randomisation?
When items/stimuli/tasks are presented to participants in a random order
Effects of randomisation
- avoids systematic errors
- reduces bias as the researcher has no control over the order
What is standardisation?
The process when procedures are kept the same for all participants
Effects of stanardisation
Keeps process identical for everyone so experiment can be repeated
How to control participant variables
- use a large, representative sample
- randomly allocate participants
- repeated measures design
- matched pairs design
How to control situational variables
- ensure all participants are treated in the same way
- use a script or written instructions
How to control experimenter effects
- double-blind experiment
- random allocation
- written instructions (no investigator needed)
How to control demand characteristics
- deceit the ppts (tell them the aim is different)
- independent groups design
- distractor questions
- double-blind
what is a pilot study
a smaller, trial run of the experiment to assess its feasibility before researchers commit to conducting the study
why is doing a pilot study useful
- helps to improve the validity of the research
- helps researchers to see if they are wasting their time
where do pilot studies identify problems (4 things):
- the method/design
- instructions given to ppts
- procedure followed by ppts
- materials used by ppts
what is the floor effect and why might it occur
if the task is too hard and none of the participants score at all/score very low
what is the ceiling effect and why might it occur
if the task is too easy and all participants achieve virtually full marks
how do pilot studies help floor or ceiling effects
pilot studies allow researchers to see if the task is an appropriate level
who are pilot studies usually carried out on (and why)
people who are different from the ppts but still in the target population
- this gives valid results without the chance of demand characteristics in the experiment
what are questionnaires
a written set of fixed questions for participants with little interaction between the researcher and the participant
(less chance for demand characteristics/investigator bias and increased reliability because questions are replicable - standardised procedure)
why would the researcher not being present at an experiment be a disadvantage
can’t answer questions - therefore ppts may perform tasks incorrectly/guess, giving inaccurate results
what is an advantage of face-to-face questionnaires
participants feel pressure to complete, which increases the data collected
what is a disadvantage of face-to-face questionnaires
ppts may face investigator effects and therefore may give incorrect, wrong answers, creating inaccurate results
what is an advantage of online questionnaires
- larger sample size
- time effective
- accessible
- if it’s anonymous, ppts may feel more able to reveal personal information which leads to more valid answers
what is a disadvantage of online questionnaires
- people may ignore/forget to complete
what are open questions
questions which allow ppts to answer in their own words (qualitative data which shows more depth and detail)
what are closed questions
questions which force ppts to select an answer from given options (quantitative data which gives a clear answer)
what is a likert scale
a closed question where ppts choose a value on a scale that represents their view/opinion
what are leading questions
questions asked by the researcher which may point to a specific answer, therefore affecting validity
what is the acquiescence bias
when respondents unconsciously answer in a way which agrees with the question, leading to decreased validity
why do questionnaires often have low population validity
there may be a sample bias because certain types of people will willingly participate in questionnaires, and these people often have similar characteristics/interests
what is it called when ppts respond with answers that show themselves in the best light - and why is this a disadvantage for survey’s?
social desirability bias - may lead to results that are not entirely valid because responses may be lies
what is an interview
a social interaction between the researcher (trained) and the participant
what are the 3 types of interviews
- structured
- unstructured
- semi-structured
what is a structured interview
an interview with fixed, predetermined questions used in larger scale situations
what is an unstructured interview
an interview about a certain topic area, but with no set questions (questions are based on the ppts previous answers). the researcher can also help and clarify things for ppts
what is a semi-structured interview
an interview where the researcher has guidelines to follow for questions but can choose the time allocated for each questions, and the phrasing for each question
what things do you need to consider when planning an interview?
- open or closed questions?
- structured/ unstructured/ semi-structured?
- is there potential for social desirability bias?
- what ethical issues could arise
- how will you record information
why might ppts demonstrate social desirability bias in interviews and how can you stop this
- people want to be perceived in a better way
- ensure people of anonymity so they feel more comfortable disclosing their true feelings
why is social desirability bias an issue in interviews
people may lie and therefore give invalid answers
why might ppts demonstrate acquiescence bias in interviews
people like to be perceived as agreeable and therefore please others by giving ‘correct answers’
why is acquiescence bias an issue
validity
why are interviews more suitable to discuss sensitive topics
- researchers can offer ppts reassurance and create a safer space
- the interview can stop if the ppts is too distressed (more ethical)
why is there low inter-rater reliability between interviewers
- may perform investigator effects
- interviewers are all different
- interviewers may present themselves differently for different ppts
what is inter-rater reliability
reliability between ppts or interviewers (how consistent the results are)
what kind of data do interviews tend to gather (and a strength of this)
qualitative data - can gain a more in-depth understanding of ppts because of their more detailed answers
why does qualitative data often lead to lower validity
investigators could all interpret the answers differently meaning the results would be inaccurate/biased and more subject to investigator bias
why are interviews time consuming
- only study 1 at a time
- qualitative data takes longer to analyse
- have to transcribe if audio recording data or rewrite notes if typing
why is it an issue that interviews can be time consuming
researcher might have to use a smaller samples which reduces population validity because the sample is less representative
what is qualitative data
non-numerical data which explores subjective experiences and attitudes and produces detailed descriptions
what is quantitative data
numerical, objective data which can be used to make predictions and identify patterns
why is quantitative data high in validity
it is more objectively analysed so less interpretation is involved and comparisons/results can be drawn more easily between data sets
why is quantitative data low in validity
ppts may be forced to select answers which don’t represent their beliefs which leads to inaccurate data
is quantitative data scientifically objective or not? (and why if so)
yes - numerical data can be interpreted using statistical analysis which is free from bias and interpretation, so high in objectivity
is qualitative data subjective or not? (and why if so)
yes - the data is detailed and cannot be compared so is therefore open to bias and interpretation and is less scientifically objective (more subjective)
which type of data is more time and cost effective and why
quantitative - methods to gather info immediately produce the information which can be easily compared and analysed quickly
which type of data is more reliable and why
quantitative because it is based on numerical, measured values which can be easily replicated
what is a correlation
a form of analysis to see the extent to which 2 different variables are ‘related’ (as one changes, does the other change?)
give an example of variables that can be measured using a correlation
number of hours revised, number of marks gained in an exam
what is a positive correlation
as variable 1 increases, variable 2 increases
what is a negative correlation
as variable 1 increases, variable 2 decreases
how are correlations presented
using a scatter graph
what is the relationship coefficient for a perfect positive correlation
+1
what is the relationship coefficient for a perfect negative correlation
-1
what is the relationship coefficient for no correlation
0
what does a correlation coefficient measure
the strength of the relationship by seeing how closely the results follow a set, predictable pattern
what is the difference between a directional correlational hypothesis and a non-directional correlational hypothesis
directional - specifies whether the relationship will be positive or negative
non-directional - says that ‘there will be a relationship between the 2 variables’
what must a correlational hypothesis include
- both variables (operationalised)
- the word significant
positives of correlations
- allow us to investigate unethical situations without causing harm to ppts
- can lead to new research and be used as a starting point to see whether the research is worth carrying out
- control for participant variables because the data comes from the same person (natural control over any individual differences)
negatives of correlations
- they do not show causation so we cannot establish cause and effect
- there may be validity issues because another untested variable may be impacting the relationship
what does reliability refer to
how consistent the results are likely to be
what does validity refer to
how accurate the results are
how can you assess reliability
by using standardised procedure so the experiment/research can be replicated - if the results are consistent, the study is reliable
what does it mean to ‘operationalise’ something
to turn abstract concepts into measurable observations (e.g. happiness)
what is a naturalistic observation
a research method where experimenters observe ppts in their natural enviroment
what is a controlled observation
a research method where experimenters observe ppts in an artificial and controlled setting like a lab
what is an overt observation
an observation when the ppt knows that they’re being watched
what is a covert observation
an observation when the ppt does not know that they’re being watched
what is a participant observation
when the researcher becomes part of the group they are observing
what is a non-participant observation
when the researcher is separate from the group they are observing
what are observations
when researchers watch and record the behaviours that they are studying
why is it important to operationalise behaviours before conducting an observation
so researchers can clearly identify when the behaviour is presented, increasing the validity of the research
how do structured observations work
the researcher will use a predetermined behaviour coding sheet which includes categories that illustrate the desired behaviour
how do unstructured observations work
the researcher records all relevant behaviours, instead of categorising them into a sheet
is a naturalistic observation or controlled observation more likely to be unstructured and why
naturalistic because there is less control over extraneous variables, so it is harder to predetermine behaviour
Do naturalistic observations have high or low ecological validity, and what does this mean
high because it takes place in a natural setting, therefore behaviour will be more realistic
why could ethical issues arise amongst a naturalistic observation
the study takes place in the real world where ppts don’t know they are being studied so cannot give informed consent
Do naturalistic observations have high or low internal validity, and what does this mean
low because it is harder to implement standardised procedure in real world settings. this means that it is harder to establish cause and effect because extraneous variables could impact the study, meaning it is harder to replicate
Do controlled observations have high or low ecological validity, and what does this mean
low because the observation takes place in an artificial setting, so behaviour may be unnatural, reducing the validity
Do controlled observations have high or low internal validity, and what does this mean
high because they take place in a controlled lab setting where extraneous variables can be controlled through standardised procedure - this increases its reliability and validity
Do covert observations have high or low internal validity, and what does this mean
high because ppts are not aware they are being observed, so will not demonstrate demand characteristics
why do covert observations have practical difficulties
it is hard for researchers to remain unobserved, they would have no use no recording equipment so crucial behaviours may be missed which could mean that the results are less accurate and valid
Do overt observations have high or low internal validity, and what does this mean
low because PPTs are aware they are being observed, so they will most likely show demand characteristics
why do participant observations have practical difficulties
it is difficult for the researcher to record behaviours and make notes on ppts whilst also participating. this means that reflections on behaviours must be done fro memory, meaning they could be less accurate and valid
why are participant observations more prone to investigator bias
The researcher interacts with the PPTs and could form friendships, which may influence their judgement. This reduces objectivity and validity
what form does a behaviour checklist/coding sheet typically take
A tally chart - researchers count the frequencies of the behaviours seen during the observation
What does using behavioural categories improve
inter-rater reliability (all ppts are measured consistently)
what is event sampling
when the researcher decides what behaviour they will focus on and records each time it is displayed on a tally chart
what is time sampling
when behaviour is recorded at set time intervals
give an example of event sampling and time sampling
event - everytime Jess doodles in her psych booklet
time - a teacher records whether a child is alone, with a friend, or in a group
give an advantage of time sampling
easier to manage and record behaviour
give a disadvantage of time sampling
some behaviours may be missed if they don’t occur at the correct sampling time
give an advantage of event sampling
all behaviours are recorded so results are accurate
give a disadvantage of event sampling
the amount of behaviours observed may be too much to record
what is inter-rater reliability within observations
when 2 or more observers conduct the same observation simultaneously but separately and compare their findings to assess the level of consistency
