Social Influence

Question 1

Conformity Definition

Answer 1

Change in individuals behaviours/ beliefs to go along with real/ imagined group pressure

Question 2

Compliance

Answer 2

Most superficial, least permanent.
Publicly change beliefs, privately revert back when no group pressure.
Linked to NSI.

Question 3

Identification

Answer 3

Possible private as well as public acceptance.
Individuals look to group for guidance.
Adjust behaviours/ beliefs as membership of group’s desirable.

Question 4

Internalisation

Answer 4

Deepest and most permanent change.
Individuals publicly and privately changed beliefs/ behaviours.
Accept attitudes into own cognition.
Linked to ISI.

Question 5

Explanation of conformity: NSI

Answer 5

Desire to be liked.
‘Go along’ with group pressure to avoid ridicule and gain acceptance.
Emotional process.
Leads to compliance.

Question 6

Explanation of conformity: ISI

Answer 6

Desire to be right.
Individual unsure about how to behave, seek info from group assuming it’s right.
Cognitive process.
Leads to internalisation.

Question 7

AO3: Research to support NSI

Answer 7

Asch research, 123 American male ppts asked to state which line’s closest in length to ‘x.’ Ppts conformed, gave same wrong as confederates 37% of the time. Supports NSI, task was unambiguous, conformed to avoid group ridicule.

Question 8

AO3: Limitation of Asch’s research

Answer 8

Gender bias, only males tested, difficult to generalise findings to females. Neto suggests females may be more conformist, more concerned about social relationships and being liked. Lowers external validity.

Question 9

AO3: Research to support ISI

Answer 9

Jenness research, ppts estimate number of jelly beans in the jar, group estimate, second private guess, found second private guess significantly closer to group estimate than first original estimate. Supports ISI, task was ambiguous, look to group for guidance.

Question 10

AO3: Limitation of Jenness Research

Answer 10

Lacks eco val, study took place in artificial lab environment. Difficult to generalise findings to real life e.g’s of NSI. People may be less likely to conform as there may be consequences for their actions. Reducing external val.

Question 11

Aim of Asch’s research

Answer 11

To investigate the effects of a majority opinion on individual’s judgement.

Question 12

Variables Affecting Conformity: Group Size

Answer 12

Conformity rates increase as size of majority increases.
One ppt, one confederate, 3% conformity.
One ppt, two confederates, 13% conformity.
One ppt, three confederates, 32% conformity.
Group size stops having effect on conformity after this size.
Conclude: Size of majority has effect on conformity, but only to a point.

Question 13

Variables Affecting Conformity: Unanimity

Answer 13

Complete agreement from a group of people about an answer/ viewpoint.
Asch study: conformity 37% with confederates giving same wrong answer.
Asch varied study, confederate gave 1 correct answer, conformity dropped to 5.5%.
Conclude: When a dissenter breaks group’s unanimous position, conformity decreases.

Question 14

Variables Affecting Conformity: Task Difficulty

Answer 14

Conformity increases when difficulty of task increases..
Asch varied study, made stimulus and comparison lines very similar in length, correct answer was less obvious and task was harder.
When task difficulty increases, conformity rates increase.
Links to ISI, look to group for guidance.

Question 15

AO3: Variables Affecting Conformity: Lucas et al

Answer 15

Research to support, Lucas et al. Told ppts to answer ‘easy’ and ‘hard’ maths questions, ppts given answers from other confederates. Ppts conformed more when problems were difficult. Supports task difficulty in Asch’s research.

Question 16

AO3: Variables Affecting Conformity: Limitation of Lucas et al

Answer 16

Conformity’s more complicated than Asch suggested, ppts with higher confidence in math’s ability conformed less. Individual-ability influences conformity. Limits Asch research, unsure about ppts ability.

Question 17

Conformity to Social Roles: Zimbardo’s Aim

Answer 17

To investigate how easily people would conform to the roles of a prisoner and prison guard, in a role-playing exercise that imitated prison life.

Question 18

Conformity to Social Roles: Zimbardo’s Sample

Answer 18

24 ‘emotionally stable’ American male university students

Question 19

Conformity to Social Roles: Zimbardo’s Procedure

Answer 19

Ppts randomly allocated roles of prisoner and prison guard.
Prisoners arrested in homes, takes to prison, searched, deloused, dressed in smock uniforms, given numbers.
Guards given uniform, ‘nightstick,’ and mirrored glasses, creating loss of personal identity (de-individualisation).
Told to not physically abuse prisoners.
Basement of Stanford University converted into mock prison.
Prisoners placed in cells, regular routine of shifts, meal times, visiting times.
Prisoner wanted to leave, had to go through parole process.
Zimbardo took role of prison superintendent.

Question 20

Conformity to Social Roles: Zimbardo’s Findings

Answer 20

Within a day, prisoners rebelled, ripping off numbers, guards responded by locking them in cells, confiscating blankets.
Punishments by guards escalated, prisoners humiliated and deprived of sleep.
Identification- prisoners referred to each other and themselves by numbers.
Prisoners became depressed, showed symptoms of psychological disturbance.
Role play intended to run for two weeks, called of after six days.

Question 21

Conformity to Social Roles: Zimbardo’s Conclusion

Answer 21

Guards, prisoners, researchers conformed to roles.
Social roles have extraordinary power over individuals, making those with high morals capable of extreme brutality towards others.

Question 22

AO3: Zimbardo’s Research & Ethical Issues

Answer 22

Major ethical issues, lack of informed consent, prisoners didn’t consent to being taken from their homes. Lack of right to withdraw, prisoner wanted to leave, spoke to Zimbardo about his want to be released, Zimbardo responded as superintendent, rather than researcher with responsibility for ppt. Prisoners weren’t protected from psychological harm when inside experiment, showing signs of psychological disturbance, however, Zimbardo carried out debriefing sessions for several years, and there were no signs of any long lasting effects.

Question 23

AO3: Zimbardo’s Research & Practical Applications

Answer 23

Practical applications, used to explain and predict behaviour in real world. Actions displayed by prison guards in Abu Ghraib military prison in Iraq similar to Zimbardo’s findings where prisoners were tortured, humiliated and physically abused. Zimbardo research used for developing prevention programmes used for training purposes in prisons, important part of applied psychology, has high external validity.

Question 24

AO3: Zimbardo’s Research & Gender Bias

Answer 24

Gender bias, male only sample, difficult to generalise findings to women, role of guard is violent, women may not have conformed as much as stereotypically women are more caring/ concerned for others, lowers external val However, Zimbardo conducted study due to interest in explaining butality in American prisons, where majority of guards were male.

Question 25

Obedience to Authority Definition

Answer 25

Someone acts in response to a direct order (whether comfortable with the order or not) from a figure of perceived authority.

Question 26

Obedience to Authority: Milgram’s Research Aim

Answer 26

To investigate if individuals would obey the orders of an authority figure even if this led to negative consequences.

Question 27

Obedience to Authority: Milgram’s Sample

Answer 27

40 American middle-aged males.

Question 28

Obedience to Authority: Milgram’s Procedure

Answer 28

Advert in newspaper seeking volunteers for experiment supposedly researching memory, paid $4.50. Ppt arrived at Yale university, introduced to other ppt (actually a confederate), drew lots (rigged), ppt assigned role of ‘teacher,’ confederate was the ‘learner.’ Teachers job was to administer learning task and deliver ‘electric shocks’ to learner in another if they got a question wrong. Shocks began at 15 Volts and increased by 15 volts each time until they stopped at 450 Volts. Experimenter used prompts if ‘teacher’ refused e.g. “Please continue.”

Question 29

Obedience to Authority: Milgram’s Findings

Answer 29

All ppts went to at least 300 Volts, only 12.5% stopped at that point. 65% of ppts continued to max of 450 Volts, showing high obedience levels.

Question 30

Obedience to Authority: Milgram’s Conclusion

Answer 30

Ordinary people are obedient to authority when asked to behave in inhumane way. Not necessarily evil people who commit evil crimes, but ordinary people who are just obeying orders.

Question 31

AO3: Milgram’s Research & Demand Characteristics

Answer 31

Prone to demand characteristics. Ppts knew they were taking part in experiment, changed natural behaviour to help researcher, not because they’re obedient to authority figure, especially because they were paid for taking part. Reducing internal val of Milgram research.

Question 32

AO3: Milgram’s Research & Hofling Research

Answer 32

Research to support Milgram conducted by Hofling. Conducted study on nurses in hospital ward, ordered by unknown doctor to give dangerous dose of drug to patients via telephone. 21 out of 22 nurses agreed to give dangerous dose over phone (stopped before actually gave it). Supports idea of obedience to authority, nurses agreed. Increases external val of Milgram’s research.

Question 33

AO3: Milgram’s Research & Gender Bias

Answer 33

Gender bias, only uses male ppts, difficult to generalise findings to females, may have obeyed differently e.g. research suggests females are more obedient as stereotypically their gender roles make them more submissive. Weakens external val of Milgram’s research. However, Milgram could argue he was trying to explain behaviours of soldiers in Nazi Germany who were largely male, could be his reasoning for using a male only sample.

Question 34

Milgram’s Research: Situational Variables Affecting Obedience: Proximity

Answer 34

How near/far the teacher is to the learner or experimenter (authority figure).
Milgram’s original experiment: teacher couldn’t see learner, could only hear them, obedience was 65%.
When the teacher and learner were in the same room obedience fell to 40% because the teacher could directly see how their actions were having an unpleasant consequence on the learner.
In another proximity variation of Milgram’s research the experimenter left the room and gave instructions to the teacher via telephone, in this variation, obedience fell to 20%, suggesting the closer an authority figure is to an individual, the more obedient that individual will be.

Question 35

Milgram’s Research: Situational Variables Affecting Obedience: Location

Answer 35

The original experiment was conducted in a prestigious university (Yale).
Milgram’s variation: changed the location to a run-down office in a run-down part of town, obedience fell from 65% at Yale to 48% in the run-down office.
Milgram stated when the location changed to a run-down office the amount of perceived legitimate authority of the experimenter was reduced.

Question 36

Milgram’s Research: Situational Variables Affecting Obedience: Power of Uniform

Answer 36

Wearing uniform gives a perception of added legitimate authority to someone giving orders.
Milgram’s experiment: Researcher wore a grey lab coat, giving him an ‘air’ of authority.
Variation of Milgram’s study: the role of the experimenter was taken over by ‘an ordinary member of the public’ wearing ‘ordinary everyday clothes’ after the original experimenter in the grey lab coat was called away from the experiment to answer a phone call. Obedience dropped to 20%.
Uniform acts as a strong visual symbol of authority, and a cue to act in an obedient manner, & when not in uniform the perceived legitimate authority of the experimenter was reduced.

Question 37

AO3: Situational Variables Affecting Obedience: Bickman Research

Answer 37

Research to support conducted by Bickman in New York. Had confederates dress in 3 different outfits (a security guard, a business man and a milkman). The confederates asked passers-by to either give money to pay for parking or pick up litter. It was found ppts were twice as likely to follow the instructions given by the security guard rather than the business man, supporting the power of uniform as a variable affecting obedience, ppts more likely to follow orders.

Question 38

AO3: Situational Variables Affecting Obedience: Gender Bias

Answer 38

Gender bias, male ppts, difficult to generalise findings to females, my have obeyed differently yo variables affecting obedience, e.g. research suggests females may be more obedient because of gender roles, e.g. more submissive, weakens external val of research.

Question 39

AO3: Situational Variables Affecting Obedience: Alternative explanation

Answer 39

Alternative explanation for obedience is dispositional factors e.g. authoritarian personality. This would argue obedience is due to internal characteristics of person e.g. personality, rather than situational factors. This suggests obedience may not be just due to proximity, location and uniform. Weakens Milgram’s research, situational variables aren’t sole explanation.

Question 40

Explanations for Obedience: Agentic State

Answer 40

People move from an autonomous state (taking personal responsibilty for their actions) to an agentic state (a state where they belief they’re acting on BEHALF of an authority figure), known as the agentic shift.
An individual in the agentic state loses a sense of personal responsibility for their actions as they think they’re carrying out the instructions of a more knowledgeable
authority figure.
A person in the agentic state’s more likely to obey.

Question 41

Explanations for Obedience: Legitimacy of Authority

Answer 41

Obedient individuals accept the power and status of an authority figure e.g. parents, teachers, police, and see them as being in charge.
The authority they have is legitimate as it’s agreed by society. We accept their credentials and belief they know what they’re doing.
It’s ingrained in us to believe these individuals, even when we belief the order may be unethical/ unjust.
Factors affect LOA are uniform and location, as seen in Milgram’s research (ordinary clothes and run-down office).

Question 42

AO3: Explanations for Obedience: Milgram’s study

Answer 42

Research to support agentic state: Milgram’s study.
Majority of Milgram’s ppt resisted giving electric shocks at some point, experimenter was asked questions e.g. ‘Who’s responsible if the learner’s harmed?’’
When the experimenter responded ‘I am responsible’ the majority of ppts continued to obey and give electric shocks.
This supports the agentic state as once the ppts no longer believed they were responsible for their actions they obeyed the experimenter.

Question 43

AO3: Explanations for Obedience: Hofling’s study

Answer 43

Research to support explanations for obedience conducted by Hofling. Conducted study on nurses in hospital ward, ordered by unknown doctor to give dangerous dose of drug to patients via telephone. 21 out of 22 nurses agreed to give dangerous dose over phone (stopped before actually gave it). Supports LoA , doctor had more authority than nurses, supports agentic state, nurses may have believed doctors were responsible for any negative consequences, therefore they obeyed.

Question 44

AO3: Explanations for Obedience: Research to Contradict Agentic State

Answer 44

Mandel research. One incident describing German Nazi soldiers, men obeyed orders to shoot civilians. However, told beforehand they could be given other orders instead. Contradicts agentic state, soldiers chose to shoot civilians over other duties. Contradicts agentic state, wouldn’t be able to blame authority figure, acting in autonomous state.

Question 45

Dispositional Explanation for Obedience: Authoritarian Personality

Answer 45

Proposed by Adorno, internal explanation for obedience, focus that certain personality characteristics associated with higher obedience levels.

Question 46

Dispositional Explanation for Obedience: Authoritarian Personality: Personality Traits

Answer 46

Collection of personality traits from strict parenting during childhood e.g. impossibly high standards, severe criticisms of failing.
personality traits include showing extreme respect for perceived authority, submission to those in perceived authority, see them as superior, disapprove of individuals perceived as low status, direct ager towards them, view them as inferior, have traditional views, and adhere strictly o social rules and hierarchies.

Question 47

Dispositional Explanation for Obedience: Authoritarian Personality Assessment

Answer 47

Assessed using F-scale questionnaire by Adorno. Sample of over 2000 American ppts. Those who scored highly had authoritarian personality and displayed authoritarian personality characteristics.

Question 48

AO3: Dispositional Explanation for Obedience: Authoritarian Personality: Milgram and Elms Research

Answer 48

Research to support was Milgram and Elms, interviewed ppts who had taken part in Milgrams experiment, asked them to complete F-scale questionnaire to measure levels of authoritarianism. Higher levels of authoritarianism among ppts classed as obedient (those who gave shocks up till 450V) compared to defiant (stopped at 300V). Suggests authoritarian personality associated with obedience, supports dispositional explanation of authoritarian personality as explanation for obedience.

Question 49

AO3: Dispositional Explanation for Obedience: Authoritarian Personality: Adorno et al

Answer 49

Authoritarian personality criticised for social desirability, ppts may have lied on F-scale to present themselves in best possible light, e.g. minimise fascist views. Adorno research not accurate, lowering internal val of research.

Question 50

AO3: Dispositional Explanation for Obedience: Limited Explanation

Answer 50

Limited explanation, difficult to use personality as explanation for obedience in majority of country’s population. e.g. pre-war Germany, millions displayed racist, anti-Semitic behaviour. Likely individuals differed somewhat in personality, unlikely they all displayed authoritarian personality, casts doubt on explanation.

Question 51

Explanations of Resistance to Social Influence: Social Support

Answer 51

People resist pressures to conform/ obey when receive social support. Having an ally gives confidence and support, making it possible to resist pressures to conform/ obey and remain independent in behaviour. Individuals who have support for their pov no longer fear being ridiculed, allowing them to avoid NSI.

Question 52

AO3: Explanations of Resistance to Social Influence: Social Support: Resistance to Conformity

Answer 52

Comes from Asch, Asch’s original conformity study confederates all gave same wrong answer, conformity was 37%, varied study, one confederate gave rights answer, conformity dropped to 5.5%. Supports idea because confederate provided ppt with social support, gave confidence to remain independent, resist pressures to conform.

Question 53

AO3: Explanations of Resistance to Social Influence: Social Support: Resisting Pressure to Obey

Answer 53

Comes from Milgram. Variation of Milgram study, ppt paired with two confederates (also played teachers). two confederates refused to continue, withdrew from experiment. This variation showed that conformity dropped from 65% to 10%, supporting social support, shows real ppt has support, more likely to resist obedience to authority figure.

Question 54

Explanations of Resistance to Social Influence: Locus of Control Definition

Answer 54

Personality trait referring to person’s perception of personal control over own behaviour. Scale of LoC has internal at one end and external at the other.

Question 55

Explanations of Resistance to Social Influence: Internal Locus of Control

Answer 55

Believe they control what happens to them and behaviour’s caused by own personal decisions/ effort. Strong internal LoC, more likely to remain independent in behaviour and rely less on opinions of others, better able to resist social influence.

Question 56

Explanations of Resistance to Social Influence: External Locus of Control

Answer 56

Believe whatever happens to them’s due to external factors e.g. influence of other, luck, fate. Strong external LoC take less personal responsibilty, less likely to remain independent in behaviour, less able to resist social influence.

Question 57

AO3: Explanations of Resistance to Social Influence: Locus of Control: Milgram and Elms

Answer 57

RTS, Milgram and Elms. Interviewed Milgram’s original ppts, found those with internal LoC, significantly more likely to refuse giving electric shocks, those with external LoC, more likely to be within 65% of those who gave full 450V. Supporting existence of LoC, those with internal LoC more likely to resist obedience and remain indpendent in behaviour.

Question 58

AO3: Explanations of Resistance to Social Influence: Locus of Control: Spector

Answer 58

RTS LoC existence, Spector. Measured LoC and likelihood of being influenced by NSI and ISI in students, found students with external LoC more likely to conform to NSI than those with internal LoC. However, no difference between two groups for ISI situations. Supports idea that those with internal LoC more likely to resist social influence in certain situations.

Question 59

Minority Influence Definition

Answer 59

Members of majority group change beliefs/ behaviours because of minority influencing decision, usually lead to internalisation. Minority must be consistent, committed and flexible in behaviour.

Question 60

Minority Influence: Consistency

Answer 60

Minority keep repeating same beliefs to majority over time (diachronic synchrony) and between all individuals that form minority (synchronic consistency). Majority then reassess the situation and consider minority idea more carefully.

Question 61

Minority Influence: Commitment

Answer 61

Suggests minority must show dedication and make personal sacrifices when facing majority. Minorities may engage in quite extreme activities to draw attention to their views. Activities present risk to minority, shows greater commitment. Majority groups may pay even more attention, known as the augmentation principle (drawing attention).

Question 62

Minority Influence: Flexibility

Answer 62

Suggested whilst consistency of argument is important, too much consistency may be seen as dogmatic and rigid, may stop majority moving over to minority viewpoint. Members of minority must be prepared to adapt their pov and accept reasonable counter-arguments. The key is strike balance between consistency and flexibility.

Question 63

AO1: Research on Consistency and Commitment: Moscovici’s study

Answer 63

Importance of consistency and commitment where shown in Moscovici’s study. He conducted research on 172 female participants in a laboratory experiment.
Two conditions:
1) Minority group of two people INconsistently called set of blue slides “green” showing little commitment, having little to no effect on the majority (1% changed their answers), who continued to call them blue.
2) Minority group called all blue slides green showing consistency and commitment, 8% of majority changed their answers to be in line with a minority.
Shows the importance of being consistent and committed when a minority is trying to influence a majority.

Question 64

AO3: Minority Influence: Moscovici’s study

Answer 64

Supports consistency and commitment, Minority group of two people INconsistently called set of blue slides “green” showing little commitment, having little to no effect on the majority (1% changed their answers), who continued to call them blue. Whereas when a minority group called all blue slides green showing consistency and commitment, 8% of majority changed their answers to be in line with a minority. Shows the importance of being consistent and committed when a minority is trying to influence a majority.

Question 65

AO3: Minority Influence: Limitation of Moscovici’s study

Answer 65

Lacks mundane realism, unrealistic task of stating the colour of a slide, therefore it’s difficult to generalise the findings to explain how minorities attempt to change the behaviour of majorities in real life situations where outcomes are more important e.g. a jury deciding a verdict. Lowering external validity.

Question 66

AO3: Minority Influence: Real Life Evidence

Answer 66

Minority influenced majority by using consistency, commitment and flexibility from the suffragette movement.
Women showed consistency by having same belief that women should have equal rights between all members over a long period of time.
Showed commitment by going on hunger strike.
Were flexible as they accepted women having a vote at age 30 and then continued to campaign, finally winning the right for women to vote.
This shows how the minority can influence a majority in the real world.

Question 67

Social Change Defintion

Answer 67

Refers to change in attitudes, behaviours and laws. Aren’t just with individual but on a large scale, how societal norms have changed. e.g. increased rights for women to vote via the Suffragette movement in the 1920’s, earning the right for women to vote.

Question 68

AO1: Process of Social Change

Answer 68

Minority has an idea, must remain consistent by having the same belief between members of the group over a long period of time. Must also show commitment by showing dedication and making personal sacrifices. Must be flexible and not completely rigid, showing compromise if they want to change majority opinion.
Minority remain consistent, committed and flexible they can publicly and privately changed majority beliefs (Internalisation).
A few members of majority move towards minority, influence of minority begins to gather momentum as more people pay attention until eventually until minority idea becomes majority idea (Snowball effect).
Majority idea remembers minority idea, but not that idea came from minority, two become separated (Social-crypto amnesia).
Social change has occurred, change in society’s attitudes, behaviours and laws.

Question 69

AO3: Social Change: Limitation

Answer 69

Critics argue social change through minority influence may be limited as social change doesn’t occur quickly. Tendency for human beings to conform to majority opinion and maintain status quo, rather than engage in social change. Suggests minority often creates potential for social change, rather than social change itself.

Question 70

AO3: Social Change: Real Life Evidence

Answer 70

Minority influenced majority in social influence processes in social change by using consistency, commitment and flexibility from the suffragette movement.
Women showed consistency by having same belief that women should have equal rights between all members over a long period of time.
Showed commitment by going on hunger strike.
Were flexible as they accepted women having a vote at age 30 and then continued to campaign, finally winning the right for women to vote.
This shows how the minority can influence a majority in the real world, demonstrating the role of social influence processes in social change.

Question 71

AO3: Social Change: Research to Support

Answer 71

Supports role of minority influence in social influence processes, Minority group of two people INconsistently called set of blue slides “green” showing little commitment, having little to no effect on the majority (1% changed their answers), who continued to call them blue. Whereas when a minority group called all blue slides green showing consistency and commitment, 8% of majority changed their answers to be in line with a minority. Shows the importance of being consistent and committed argument to create social change.