Research Methods: Non - Experimental Methods

Question 1

Types of Observations: Define Controlled Observation

Answer 1

-Conditions are manipulated by researcher.
-Observation may be carried out in laboratory environment (artificial) e.g. Ainsworth’s study.

Question 2

Types of Observations: Controlled Observation Strength

Answer 2

P: High in reliability.
E: Environment is controlled and standardised (e.g. time)
E: Observation can be easily repeated to check for consistent results.
L: Controlled observation will gain more respect from professionals and members of public.

Question 3

Types of Observations: Controlled Observation Weakness: Eco Val

Answer 3

P: Low eco val
E: Controlled/ artificial setting.
E: Difficult to generalise results beyond setting of observation.
L: Lowers external val of research.

Question 4

Types of Observations: Controlled Observation Weakness: Demand Characteristics

Answer 4

P: Prone to demand characteristics.
E: Ppts know they’re being watched.
E: Change natural behaviour to either help/ hinder the research based on clues given.
L: Lowers internal val.

Question 5

Types of Observations: Define Naturalistic Observation

Answer 5

-Watching natural behaviour in natural environment for ppt where target behaviour would normally occur.
-No manipulation of variables e.g. bullying in a playground.

Question 6

Types of Observations: Naturalistic Observation Strength: Demand Characteristics

Answer 6

P: Less prone to demand characteristics.
E: People less likely to know they’re being watched.
E: Unlikely to change natural behaviour to either help/ hinder the research.
L: Increases internal val of observation.

Question 7

Types of Observations: Naturalistic Observation Strength: Eco Val

Answer 7

P: High eco val.
E: Observation takes place in a natural setting.
E: Easier to generalise the results beyond the setting of observation to other similar settings.
L: Increases internal val of research

Question 8

Types of Observations: Naturalistic Observation Weakness: Reliability

Answer 8

P: Low reliability
E: Observed in natural environment.
E: Natural environment isn’t controlled
L: Difficult to replicate observation in exact same conditions to achieve consistent results.

Question 9

Types of Observations: Naturalistic Observation Weakness: Ethical issues

Answer 9

P: Ethical issue of lack of informed consent.
E: People may not be aware they’re being observed due to being observed in natural setting.
E: Not given consent to take part.
L: Become aware may wish to withdraw data from study.

Question 10

Types of Observations: Define Overt Observation

Answer 10

-Ppts aware behaviour’s being observed, so they’re aware of the purpose of the research.
-Observer’s clearly visible to ppts.

Question 11

Types of Observations: Overt Observation Strength: Ethics

Answer 11

P: More ethically appropriate than covert observation.
E: Ppts know they’re being observed.
E: Refer to scenario, how do they know they’re being observed?
L: Ppts can give consent for data to be used.

Question 12

Types of Observations: Overt Observation Weakness: Demand Characteristics

Answer 12

P: Prone to demand characteristics.
E: Ppts know they’re being watched.
E: Change natural behaviour to either help/ hinder the research based on clues given.
L: Lowers internal val.

Question 13

Types of Observations: Define Covert Observation

Answer 13

-Observations conducted without knowledge ore awareness of ppts.
-Can be done through observer being hidden, use of secret cameras, or from behind a two-way mirror.
-Observer may become part of a group to observe behaviour, hide the fact they’re doing research.

Question 14

Types of Observations: Covert Observation Strength: Demand Characteristics

Answer 14

P: Less prone to demand characteristics.
E: People less likely to know they’re being watched.
E: Unlikely to change natural behaviour to either help/ hinder the research.
L: Increases internal val of observation.

Question 15

Types of Observations: Covert Observation Limitation: Ethical Issue

Answer 15

P: Ppts unaware they’re being studied.
E: How do you know? What makes the research covert?
E: Raises ethical issues e.g. lack of informed consent and invasion of privacy would need to be resolved.
L: Ppts are informed they may become upset and wish to withdraw from the data

Question 16

Types of Observations: Define Participant Observation

Answer 16

-Researcher’s involved with the group.
-Data’s collected whilst being part of the group e.g. joining a club/ team

Question 17

Types of Observations: Participant Observation Strength: Gain In-Depth Understanding

Answer 17

P: Observer can gain an in-depth understanding of groups behaviour as they’re part of the group.
E: What group are they in?
E: The observer won’t miss important aspects e.g. feelings and motivations.
L: Increases overall internal val of observation

Question 18

Types of Observations: Participant Observation Weakness: Researcher Bias

Answer 18

P: Increased chance of researcher bias.
E: Observer’s part of the group.
E: How is researcher part of the group.
L: Decreases objectivity of observation as researcher’s own thoughts/ behaviours may impact the observation and therefore lower the internal val of the research.

Question 19

Types of Observations: Define Non - Participant Observation

Answer 19

-Researcher’s not involved with the group
-Data collected from a distance e.g. through a video camera.

Question 20

Types of Observations: Non - Participant Observation Strength: Reduced Researcher Bias

Answer 20

P: Reduced chance of researcher bias.
E: Observer’s part of the group.
E: How is researcher part of the group.
L: Increases objectivity of observation as researcher’s own thoughts/ behaviours are less likely to impact the observation and therefore increases the internal val of the research.

Question 21

Types of Observations: Non - Participant Observation Weakness: Less Likely Understanding

Answer 21

P: Observer less likely to gain an in-depth understanding of groups behaviour as they’re not part of the group.
E: How do you know?
E: The observer may miss important aspects e.g. feelings and motivations.
L: Decreases overall internal val of observation

Question 22

What Are Behaviour Categories?

Answer 22

-Decided on what type of observation to use, need to create operationalised behaviour categories.
-This means to be specific about what you’re observing.
-Makes behaviour more measurable.

Question 23

Why Are Behaviour Categories Used?

Answer 23

-Provides clear focus for observation- observers aware of what exact behaviours they’re looking for.
-More valid research recorded and behaviour observed is less prone to bias.
-Allows observers to tally behaviour in groups, results can be compared to check for consistency to see if observation’s reliable.
-Behaviour categories provides data that’s easier to analyse, provides quantitative/ numerical data through tallies.

Question 24

Why Is Behaviour Sampling in Observations Used?

Answer 24

-Once behaviour categories are created the researcher then decides how they’ll sample the behaviour.
-Psychologist needs to decide when and how often to record behaviour.
-Two ways to do this: event and time sampling.

Question 25

Behaviour Sampling: Define Event Sampling

Answer 25

-Observer decides on specific events (behaviour categories) relevant to the investigation.
-Relevant events (behaviour categories are recorded each time they happen within set time period.
e.g. observing aggression levels at a football match, tallying every time there’s aggression within full time period.

Question 26

Behaviour Sampling: Event Sampling Strength

Answer 26

P: Useful when behaviour happens infrequently.
E: Ppts watched over period of time and behaviour category’s recorded every time it occurs.
E: Researchers less likely to miss behaviours.
L: Unlike time sampling, if behaviour happens infrequently it may be missed.

Question 27

Behaviour Sampling: Event Sampling Weakness

Answer 27

-If behaviour being observed happens very often observer may miss some behaviours as they can’t tally in time.
-Unlike time sampling, where researcher only tallies at set time intervals and may be less likely to miss this behaviour.

Question 28

Behaviour Sampling: Define Time Sampling

Answer 28

Tallying behaviours in a set time interval e.g. every two minutes.

Question 29

Behaviour Sampling: Time Sampling Strength

Answer 29

-Reduces amount of time the observers have to observe behaviours for, only observe in set time intervals.
-HOWEVER, only observing at set time intervals the behaviour’s tallied may not be representative of observation as a whole.

Question 30

What is Reliability?

Answer 30

Reliability refers to the ability to repeat a study in similar conditions to gain consistent results.

Question 31

Assessing Reliability of Observations: Inter-Observer Reliability

Answer 31

1) Reliability of observation can be checked by using two observers.
2) Two observers would create and be trained on how to use behaviour categories.
3) Two observers would conduct observation separately, what exact same behaviour for same amount of time, independently record observations.
4) Tallies from two observers should be compared and correlated using appropriate stats test.
5) Strong positive correlation of +0.8 shows high reliability.

Question 32

What’s involved in a Self Report?

Answer 32

• Ppts give info to the researcher to provide details on thoughts/ feelings/ behaviour.
• Involves ppts responding to questions in a questionnaire or interview.
• Questions in the questionnaire can be open or closed questions.
• Questions in interview can be structured or unstructured.

Question 33

What is a Questionnaire?

Answer 33

• They form part of surveys, involves asking a large sample of people for info on a specific topic.
• Involves a pre-set list of written questions which the ppt responds to.
• Purpose of surveys is to get a good representation of the target population using large sample - making it able to generalise to rest of target population.

Question 34

AO3 Questionnaires: Strength: Investigator Effects

Answer 34

P: Reduce investigator effects.
E: Researcher doesn’t have to be present whilst ppts complete the questionnaire.
E: Researcher’s response to ppts answer’s not visible and characteristics won’t influence the ppts answers.
L: Unlike an interview, researcher has to be present, increases internal validity of a questionnaire.

Question 35

AO3 Questionnaires: Strength: Large Quantity of People

Answer 35

P: Can be given to a large quantity of people.
E: Researcher doesn’t have to be present when ppts complete the questionnaire.
E: Increases generalisability of findings.
L: Unlike an interview, researcher must be present, limiting amount of people research can be conducted on, increasing external val of research.

Question 36

AO3 Questionnaires: Weakness: Social Desirability Bias

Answer 36

P: Could lead to social desirability bias.
E: People may lie to present themselves in best possible light e.g. mother lying about child’s aggression levels.
E: Lowering internal val of the research.
L: Unlike an interview, researcher is present, takes place face to face which may reduce ppts social desirability bias responses, may find it more difficult to lie face to face.

Question 37

AO3 Questionnaires: Weakness: Misinterpretation of Questions

Answer 37

P: Further weakness is misinterpretation of questions.
E: e.g. ppt may not understand question and researcher’s not present, can’t ask for clarification meaning they could leave the question or give invalid information.
E: Researcher could misinterpret/ not understand ppts answer and again can’t ask for clarification, lowering internal val.
L: Unlike interview, researcher is present so the ppt/ researcher can ask for clarification, increasing internal val.

Question 38

Types of Questions in Questionnaires: Open Questions

Answer 38

-Questions ppts can answer using their own words.
-Can express views of their own behaviour and responses tend to include greater detail.
-Often gains qualitative data (non-numerical).

Question 39

Types of Questions in Questionnaires: Closed Questions

Answer 39

-Questions that mean ppts responses are fixed e.g. ‘yes’ or ‘no.’
–Often gains quantitative dat (numerical).

Question 40

Open Questions/ Qualitative Data: Strength

Answer 40

-Provides in-depth, detailed data which provides greater understanding of behaviour in question.

Question 41

Open Questions/ Qualitative Data: Weakness

Answer 41

-Open to researcher bias as ppts responses will be open to subjective interpretation of researcher.

Question 42

Closed Questions/ Quantitative Data: Strength

Answer 42

-Easier to analyse and collate data allowing comparisons to be made between groups of people, enabling conclusions to be made about behaviour.

Question 43

Closed Questions/ Quantitative Data: Weakness

Answer 43

-Lacks in depth and insight into behaviour in question, therefore answers could lack validity.

Question 44

Designing Questionnaires

Answer 44

-Decide on type of data you want (e.g. qualitative/ quantitative).
-Decide on type of questions (e.g. open or closed- closed questions will be easy to understand and will be a fixed option scale).
- Questions:
Open questions start with ‘Describe/ Explain…’
Closed questions start with ‘How often…’
-Include distractor questions so ppts don’t pick up on clues and change behaviour (demand characteristics).
-Decide on order of questions, put easier questions first, put ppts at ease.
-Carry out pilot study to identify/ resolve problems with questionnaire.

Question 45

What is an Interview?

Answer 45

A method for asking questions, in a face to face nature, sometimes it can be over the phone or computer e.g. Skype.
Good for gathering detailed information.
Two types of interviews are structured and unstructured.

Question 46

What is a Structured Interview?

Answer 46

-All questions are pre-set before interviews are carried out.
-Less likely to deviate from topic.
-Every interviewee will be asked the same questions in exactly the same order.
-Interviewer can’t ask any extra questions based on info provided by ppt.

Question 47

AO3: Structured Interview: Strength

Answer 47

P: All ppts get same questions.
E: Easier to compare responses and identify trends and patterns more easily.
E: Refer to behaviour being studied from scenario.
L: Unlike unstructured interview where ppts get different questions, therefore it’s hard to make comparisons.

Question 48

AO3: Structured Interview: Weakness

Answer 48

P: Researcher cannot deviate from pre-set questions.
E: Cannot follow up on new lines of enquiry.
E: Don’t get full understanding of behaviour.
L: Unlike unstructured interview, questions can be developed based on responses from previous questions.

Question 49

What is an Unstructured Interview?

Answer 49

-May contain topic area for discussion, but no set questions so each interviewee gets different questions.
-Questions based on responses of interviewee, interviewer can discuss interesting points made my interviewee.
-Questions asked more likely to be open questions.

Question 50

AO3: Unstructured Interview: Strength

Answer 50

P: Researcher allows person to go into more depth with their responses.
E: Questions are based on responses of interviewer.
E: Can gain better understanding of ppts behaviour.
L: Unlike structured interview where ppts only answer set list of questions where there’s no deviation, increasing internal val of unstructured interview.

Question 51

AO3: Unstructured Interview: Weakness

Answer 51

P: More difficult to replicate unstructured interview.
E: Each ppt asked different questions based on responses.
E: Unlike structured interview, has a standardised set of questions that can be repeated at any time.
L: Lowers reliability of unstructured interview.

Question 52

AO3: Interviews: Time Consuming and Expensive

Answer 52

P: More time consuming and expensive.
E: Questions are asked face to face, requires a 1:1 with the researcher.
E: Unlike a questionnaire, less time consuming and expensive.
L: Can be given to lots of ppts to complete and doesn’t take as much time, researcher doesn’t need to be present.

Question 53

AO3: Interviews: Investigator Effects

Answer 53

P: Prone to investigator effects.
E: Researcher needs to be present.
E: Researchers behaviours/ appearance may influence the ppts to respond in a certain way, effecting outcome of study and lowering the internal val.
L: Unlike a questionnaire, researcher doesn’t need to be present, less prone to investigator effects.

Question 54

AO3: Interviews: Clarification

Answer 54

P: Researcher present during interview..
E: Ppts can ask for clarification if they don’t understand a question, vice versa.
E: Improving internal val of research.
L: Unlike a questionnaire where researcher’s not present, clarification can’t be established, lowering internal val.

Question 55

How to Design an Interview

Answer 55

-Will interview be structured or unstructured.
-Choice of open/ closed questions.
-Decide on interviewers appearance, same for all ppts to reduce the chance of investigator effects (researcher’s behaviour or appearance intentionally/ unintentionally affects behaviour of ppts and outcome of study).
-Will interview be recorded or will interviewer make notes? (Recorded, avoid missing important information/ ppt feeling anxious).
-Include additional interviewer to increase inter-rater reliability? Interviewers record separately and compare results at end of the interview.
-Conduct a pilot study to ensure problems with wording of questions are identified and resolved before the final study.

Question 56

Define Investigator Effects

Answer 56

When researcher’s behaviour/ characteristics either consciously/ unconsciously influence the outcome of the research.
e.g. the researcher’s gender/ tone of voice may influence how ppt responds in self report.

Question 57

Control for Investigator Effects

Answer 57

-Train experimenters to use a neutral tone of voice in the way they greet ppts/ ask questions.
-Ensure researcher’s same gender as ppts.
-Provide standardised script for researchers to use so they’re giving instructions/ asking questions in the same way.
-If researcher’s aware of aims of the study , get another interviewer to conduct self report who’s unaware of the aims (Double Blind)
-Above will avoid change in ppt’s behaviour and a bias response from ppts.

Question 58

How might Researchers Presence Effect the Ppts Response in a Questionnaire?

Answer 58

-Researcher may be smiling more/ have happier tone of voice when giving instructions to one group compared to another, may mean ppts rate mood more positively.

Question 59

Reliability of Self-Reports: Questionnaires

Answer 59

High reliability- can be repeated to check for consistent results.

Question 60

Reliability of Self-Reports: Unstructured Interview

Answer 60

Low reliability- ppts get different questions, difficult to repeat.

Question 61

AO3: Correlational Analysis: Strength: No Manipulation of Variables

Answer 61

P: No manipulation of variables
E: Appropriate to use when studying sensitive issues that may raise ethical issues/ when it would be inappropriate to manipulate a situation.
E: Contextualise- what’s unethical to manipulate in your scenario?
L: Whereas in an experiment it would be impractical and unethical to investigate cause and effect.

Question 62

AO3: Correlational Analysis: Strength: Starting Point

Answer 62

P: Correlations often used as starting point to assess possible patterns.
E: If relationship’s found between two variables could be suggested we can predict one variable may impact on the other.
E: May aid further experimental research into topic
L: Or could save time/ money if no relationship’s found before researchers commit to experimental study.

Question 63

AO3: Correlational Analysis: Limitation: Difficult to Establish Cause and Effect

Answer 63

P:Difficult to establish cause and effect between two variables.
E: Only a relationship’s found between two variables (contextualise- which variables are being investigated).
E: Therefore other intervening variables could be responsible for relationship found (contextualise)
L: Lowers internal val

Question 64

AO3: Correlational Analysis: Limitation: Correlations can be Misinterpreted

Answer 64

• Correlations can be misinterpreted by the media and society when links found between variables.
• Some may assume conclusion can be made about causes for relationship.
• Can be misused by public to support/ contradict an argument.

Question 65

AO1: Define Case Study?

Answer 65

• In-depth study conducted into one group/ person. Can be over long period of time, often used alongside other techniques e.g. interviews/ questionnaires which produce in-depth qualitative data.

-Case studies may involve gathering data from individual being studied but also from family and friends of individual as well.

-can also use experiments and psychological testing producing quantitative data alongside qualitative data gathered.

Question 66

AO3: Case Study Strength: Detailed

Answer 66

Gather rich, detailed insights into unusual forms of behaviour (context) that would otherwise be difficult to manipulate in experimental setting e.g. when investigating effects of memory loss. Increases our understanding of complex behaviour.

Question 67

AO3: Case Study Strength: Generate further hypotheses

Answer 67

Generate further hypotheses for future study as info found from single case study can lead to revision of entire theory- strength as it increases scientific process of inquiry.

Question 68

AO3: Case Study Weakness: Low Pop Val

Answer 68

Low pop val- only conducted on one person/ small group (contextualise to scenario- who’s individual/ small group being studied).
Difficult to generalise findings to target population (contextualise- who’s it difficult to generalise to and why?)
Lowers external validity.

Question 69

AO3: Case Study Weakness: Relies on Retrospective Data

Answer 69

Case studies often rely on retrospective data e.g. personal accounts from individuals past/ from family and friends.
Accounts may be prone to inaccuracy and promote memory decay.
Lowering internal validity of case study.