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Research Methods: Experimental Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

AO1: Lab Experiment

A

-Experiment conducted in lab, highly controlled environment.
-Researcher manipulates IV to measure the effect on the DV.

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2
Q

AO3: Lab Experiment Strength: Extraneous Variables

A

P: High control over extraneous variables.
E: e.g. light is controlled, time is controlled.
E: Cause and effect established between IV and DV.
L: Increases internal val.

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3
Q

AO3: Lab Experiment Strength: Reliability

A

P: High in reliability.
E: Experiment easily repeated in same conditions.
L: Check for consistent results.

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4
Q

AO3: Lab Experiment Weakness: Ecological Val

A

P: Lacks eco val.
E: Carried out in artificial environment.
E: Difficult to generalise findings to real scenarios
L: Lowers external val.

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5
Q

AO3: Lab Experiment Weakness: Demand Characteristics

A

P: Prone to demand characteristics.
E: Ppts change natural behaviour based on clues given by researcher.
E: Ppts choose to either help/ hinder the research.
L: Reduces internal val.

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6
Q

AO1: Field Experiment

A

-Takes place in natural environment e.g. shops, work, school.
-Researcher manipulates IV to measure effect on DV.

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7
Q

AO3: Field Experiment Strength: Demand Characteristics

A

P: Less prone to demand characteristics.
E: Ppts may not know they’re being watched.
E: Less likely to guess clues given by researcher and change natural behaviour.
L: Increasing internal val.

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8
Q

AO3: Field Experiment Strength: Eco Val

A

P: High eco val.
E: Based in real-life setting.
E: Easier to generalise findings to other similar real-life scenarios.
L: Increases external val.

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9
Q

AO3: Field Experiment Weakness: Repeat Study

A

P: Low in reliability.
E: Environment is natural.
E: Difficult to repeat in exact same conditions.
L: Hard to check for consistent results.

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10
Q

AO3: Field Experiment Weakness: Ethical Issues

A

P: Lack of informed consent- ethical issue.
E: Ppts may not be aware they’re being studied, wouldn’t have given consent.
E: Become aware, then they may become upset.
L: May wish to withdraw their data from research.

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11
Q

AO1: Natural Experiment

A

-Naturally occurring event.
-IV changes naturally, researcher doesn’t need to change the IV.

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12
Q

AO3: Natural Experiment Strength: More opportunities for Research

A

P: Provide more opportunities for research .
E: Research may not be undertaken for ethical reasons.
E: e.g. Rutter et al, Romanian orphans- unethical to manipulate unless institutionalisation hadn’t naturally occurred.
L: Improves credibility of natural experiments.

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13
Q

AO3: Natural Experiment Strength: High Eco Val

A

P: High Eco Val
E: Often based in real-life settings.
E: Easier to generalise findings beyond setting of study to other similar settings.
L: Increases external val.

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14
Q

AO3: Natural Experiment Weakness: Rare

A

P: Naturally occurring event may happen very rarely.
E: Limits opportunities for research.
E: Unlikely research can be repeated to check for consistent results.
L: Lacks reliability.

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15
Q

AO1: Quasi Experiment

A

-IV based on existing individual differences between people (e.g. certain characteristics).
-Researcher doesn’t manipulate IV e.g. age/ gender.
-Researcher measures effect on DV.
-Can be conducted in lab or in a natural environment.

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16
Q

AO3: Quasi Experiment Weakness: Sample bias

A

P: Sample bias.
E: Sample being studied may have unique characteristics e.g. age.
E: May be difficult to generalise to target population.
L: Lowers external val.

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17
Q

Define: Demand Characteristics

A

Any clues given off within research which lead to ppts changing their natural behaviour to either help/ hinder the research, reducing internal val.

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18
Q

How to Control Demand Characteristics

A

Making another researcher who DOESN’T KNOW the aims of the research to carry out the experiment, cannot give off any clues to influence ppts.

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19
Q

Controls: Randomisation

A

-Possible aspects of research should be allocated randomly and not decided by the biased researcher.
EXAMPLE:
Ppts must learn list of words in memory study.
Order of the words and conditions should be randomly generated (e.g. with a computer generator).
Order not decided by researcher.

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20
Q

Controls: Standardisation

A

Within research, all ppts experience same environment and instructions, avoids extraneous variables affecting measurements.
Use same formalised instructions and procedures for all ppts in a study.
e.g. standardised instructions that are read out to all ppts.

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21
Q

Experimental Design: Independent Groups Design

A

Ppts take part in one condition only.
Each condition has different ppts.
Group of ppts gathered, split into equal sized groups, different group allocated each condition.

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22
Q

AO3: Advantage of Independent Groups Design: Benefit Of Ppts Taking Part In Only One Condition

A

P: No order effects.
E: Ppts only take part in one condition.
E: Won’t get bored/ fatigued/ better at the task.
L: Unlike repeated measures design- ppts take part in all conditions which could result in order effects.

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23
Q

AO3: Disadvantage of Independent Groups Design: Individual Differences

A

P: Individual differences may affect the DV.
E: Separate groups of ppts in each condition e.g. some ppts have better memory, wouldn’t be suitable in memory study.
E: Lowers internal validity.
L: Unlike repeated measures, uses less ppts and ppts take part in every condition.

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24
Q

AO1: Repeated Measures Design

A

All ppts take part in all conditions of experiment.
Ppts complete one condition and after a sufficient time lapse they will complete the other condition.
The task should be different but matched on difficulty level.

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25
Q

AO3: Advantage of Repeated Measures Design: Individual Differences

A

P: Individual differences between ppts in each condition are removed.
E: e.g. IQ is a potential cofounding variable, same ppts take part in all the conditions.
E: Researcher makes sure any changes to the DV are due to the IV and not any other variable, Increases internal val of research.
L: Unlike Independent Groups Design which uses different ppts in different conditions, individual differences could affect the DV.

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26
Q

AO3: Advantage of Repeated Measures Design: Fewer Ppts

A

P: Requires fewer ppts.
E: Same ppts take part in all conditions.
E: Unlike Independent Groups Design.
L: Uses different ppts in different conditions, individual differences could affect the DV.

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27
Q

AO3: Disadvantage of Repeated Measures Design: Order Effects

A

P: Order effects may occur.
E: Ppts take part in more than one experimental condition, so they may perform worse in the second condition, or better due to practice.
E: Lowers external val.
L: Unlike independent groups design, ppts only take part in one condition, lowers chances of order effects.

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28
Q

AO3: Disadvantage of Repeated Measures Design: Demand Characteristics

A

P: Increases demand characteristics.
E: Ppts take part in all conditions, may pick up on clues given off by researcher, could change their natural behaviour to either help/ hinder research.
E: Lowering internal val.
L: Unlike Independent Groups Design, ppts less likely to pick up on clues as only take part in one condition.

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29
Q

AO1: Matched Pairs Design

A

Ppts are matched on important characteristics in the study e.g. age.
Giving them an appropriate test, matching two ppts with the same score.
Each member of the pair is randomly allocated across each condition.
Choose a variable to get ppts matched on, test the ppt on this variable before the study, match ppt with the same scores, randomly allocate each member of pair to one condition.

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30
Q

AO3: Matched Pairs Design Advantage: Individual Differences

A

P: Reduces individual differences between ppts.
E: Matches ppts on variables important to research, e.g. IQ, age.
E: Researcher can be sure that any changes in DV are due to the Iv and not any other variable.
L: Unlike Independent Measures Design where separate ppts are in separate conditions.

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31
Q

AO3: Matched Pairs Design Advantage: No Order Effects

A

P: No order effects.
E: Ppts only take part in one condition.
E: Won’t get bored/ fatigued/ better at the task from one condition to next.
L: Unlike repeated measures design where ppts take part in all conditions and could have order effects,

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32
Q

AO3: Matched Pairs Design Disadvantage: Matching Ppts is Time Consuming

A

P: Time consuming to match ppts based on similarities.
E: Especially if pre-test is needed to match ppts on certain characteristics.
E: Psychologist would need large pool of people.
L: Unlike repeated measures design where same ppts are used in all conditions.

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33
Q

AO3: Matched Pairs Design Disadvantage:

A

P: Individual differences aren’t fully eliminated.
E: Psychologists match ppts based on variables important for the research but aren’t able to match ppts on all variables.
E: Questions validity of matched pairs design.
L: Unlike repeated measures design where each condition will use the same ppts, therefore individual differences are eliminated.

34
Q

Problem with Independent Groups Design.

A

Individual differences are possible issue.
Different ppts in each condition, in one condition the ppts may have a particular trait that makes them perform better at the DV.
This means it’s not the IV that affects the DV,
Lowers the internal val.

35
Q

Controls for an Independent Groups Design

A

Control: Random Allocation.
Ensures each ppt has same chance of being in one condition, unlikely ppts in one condition will share characteristic to help them perform better at the DV.
Use a computer generator.

36
Q

Problem with Repeated Measures Design

A

Order effects are possible issue.
Ppts take part in all conditions, may perform better or worse in second condition.

37
Q

Control for a Repeated Measures Design

A

Control: Counterbalancing
Controls and reduces order effects.
Half ppts complete condition A then condition B,
Other half complete condition B then condition A.
Order effects are balanced/ distributed across all conditions.

38
Q

What is a Population?

A

Group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest are called the population/ target population.
Not possible to include all members from target population in research so researcher will generate a sample.

39
Q

What is a Sample?

A

A sample’s a group of people taken from the target population to take part in the research.
Assumed that the sample’s representative of the target population.

40
Q

Sampling Techniques: Random Sampling

A

Every person in target population has equal chance of being selected.
Create a complete list of the target population, write the names on equal size pieces of paper and put the names in a hat, without looking select the number you want in your sample from the hat
Or use a computer generator.

41
Q

Sampling Techniques: Random Sampling Advantage

A

P: Sample potentially more representative of target population.
E: Everyone has equal chance of being selected.
E: Any extraneous variables are equally divided between the groups.
L: Increases internal val.

42
Q

Sampling Techniques: Random Sampling Disadvantage

A

P: Time consuming.
E: Takes time, difficult collecting names of ppts to take part in the study.
E: Not guaranteed ppts would want to take part in the research.
L: Limits technique.

43
Q

Sampling Techniques: Systematic Sampling

A

‘System’ applied to select ppts.
Sampling frame created to organise the target population e.g. all people in target population put in alphabetical order.
Every 5th person (for example) is chosen until there are enough ppts for the sample.

44
Q

Sampling Techniques: Systematic Sampling Advantage

A

P: Avoids researcher bias.
E: Researcher has no influence over who’s chosen to take part in study.
E: It’s objective.

45
Q

Sampling Techniques: Systematic Sampling Disadvantage

A

P: Sample may not be representative.
E: Not everyone has equal chance of being picked.
E: Difficult to generalise to target population.
L: Creating system and collecting names could be difficult and time consuming for the researcher.

46
Q

Sampling Techniques: Stratified Sampling

A

Advanced way of sampling.
Make-up of the sample reflects proportion of certain sub-groups in target population e.g. 50% of the target population are female, then 50% of the sample will be female also.
Identify different sub-groups that make up a population e.g. males or females, calculate how many of each proportion you’d need for your sample size e.g. sample of 80, 50% female, you’d need 40 females, no. of ppts which make up each proportion are chosen using random sampling.

47
Q

Sampling Techniques: Stratified Sampling Advantage

A

P: Most representative sample
E: Accurately reflects the makeup of the target population in correct proportions.
E: Can generalise to target population.

48
Q

Sampling Techniques: Stratified Sampling Disadvantage

A

P: Time consuming.
E: Takes time working out proportions of ppts needed.
E: Not guaranteed ppts would consent to taking part in research

49
Q

Sampling Techniques: Opportunity Sampling

A

Being there at that moment in time e.g. waiting for ppts in canteen and asking first 30 ppts to walk past to participate.

50
Q

Sampling Techniques: Opportunity Sampling Advantage

A

P: Very quick, easy, less money required.
E: Choose whoever’s available at the time for your sample.
E: Unlike random sampling, takes a long time to identify everyone in target pop and make a list of names.

51
Q

Sampling Techniques: Opportunity Sampling Disadvantage

A

P: May not be representative of target pop.
E: Those picked by opportunity sample are present in the same place at the same time.
E: Doing similar things, therefore may have similar personalities.
L: Difficult to generalise findings to target pop, lowering external val.

52
Q

Sampling Techniques: Volunteer Sample

A

Self selected method, people volunteer themselves to participate e.g. placing an advert which requires ppts where people in the target pop will see it, then waiting for the first 30 replies.

53
Q

Sampling Techniques: Volunteer Sample Advantage

A

P: Quick, easy, cheap to conduct.
E: Only required to place advert for study in place target pop will see it.
E: Wait for ppts to volunteer to take part in the study.
L: Unlike random sampling, takes time to place names into a hat and give population equal chance of being picked.

54
Q

Sampling Techniques: Volunteer Sample Disadvantage

A

P: Sample may be not representative.
E: Only certain type of personality (e.g. extroverted) will volunteer.
E: Difficult to generalise to target pop.

55
Q

What’s meant by Reliability?

A

Reliability refers to the ability to repeat a study in similar conditions to gain consistent results.

56
Q

Reliability of a Lab Experiment

A

High reliability
Conducted in a controlled environment
Control over extraneous variables.

57
Q

Reliability of a Field Experiment

A

Low Reliability
Real life environment
Low control over extraneous variables

58
Q

Reliability of a Natural Experiment

A

Low reliability
Naturally occurring IV
Low control over extraneous variables

59
Q

Assessing Reliability of Experiments: Test Re-Test

A

Test re-test used to assess the reliability of any piece of research e.g. experiment, questionnaire, controlled observation.
1) Ppts given a task or measure to complete.
2) Same ppts given the same task after a time delay e.g. two weeks.
3) Correlate results from each test using stats test.
4) Strong positive correlation of +0.8 shows high reliability.

60
Q

Improving Reliability of Experiments: Operationalising

A

Operationalising means being specific and clear when defining IV and DV IN experiment, can be easily measured.

61
Q

Improving Reliability of Experiments: Importance of Operationalising

A

Variables are clear and specific, another researcher could repeat the study in same conditions to check for consistent results (replicability).
Results are consistent, research is then reliable.
In psychology, it’s important research is replicable and reliable as if same outcomes are found.

62
Q

What’s Internal Validity?

A

Internal = inside the study
Is the research measuring what it’s intending to measure?
Is it measuring the effect of just the IV on the DV.

63
Q

What’s Internal Validity Affected By?

A

Extraneous variables e.g. demand characteristics, researcher bias, order effects.

64
Q

What’s External Validity?

A

External = outside the study.
Whether the findings can be generalised outside the study.

65
Q

Types of External Validity: Ecological Validity

A

The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the setting of the study to other real-life examples.

66
Q

Types of External Validity: Population Validity

A

The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the sample studied to the target population.

67
Q

Types of External Validity: Temporal Validity

A

Extent to which the findings remain true over time and can be generalised to other time periods.

68
Q

Types of Internal Validity: Assessing Validity: Face Validity

A

Independent psychologist in the same field looks at experimental conditions to see if they look like what they intend to measure.
If researcher says ‘yes’ then the research has face validity.

69
Q

Types of Internal Validity: Assessing Validity: Concurrent Validity

A

Compare results of new test with results of similar test which has already been established for its validity, using a stats test. If results from both tests are similar, we can assume the test is valid. The correlation of the two results gained from an appropriate stats test should exceed +0.8.

70
Q

Improving Validity: Experimental Research

A

Using a control group to assess that the IV’s affected the DV, establishing cause and effect.
Standardised procedures/ instructions to reduce investigator effects.
Using single blind procedures to reduce demand characteristics, and double blind procedures to reduce demand characteristics and order effects.

71
Q

What’s meant by a Pilot Study?

A

A small scale trial run of the research before the real main scale research takes place to identify and problems and amend them.

72
Q

Aims/ Purpose of a Pilot Study

A

-Any problems can be identified and adjusted before the main study.
-Check the amount of time given to ppts is enough to complete the task.
- Ask ppts to discuss experiences of the experiment.
-Making sure questions are clear for a questionnaire or interview.

73
Q

What are ethical issues?

A

When a psychologist conducts research, they must consider ethical issues.
Ethical issues are issues ppts may face during the research which can effect them in any way.

74
Q

When do ethical issues arise?

A

When there’s a conflict/ dilemma between the rights of the ppts and the researchers MUST get valuable and meaningful findings.

75
Q

Ethical Issue: Deception

A

When ppts aren’t told the true aim of the study deliberately, prevents ppts from showing demand characteristics.

76
Q

Ethical Issue: Informed Consent

A

Ppts give permission to take part in study after being told true aims of research, given right to withdraw.

77
Q

Ethical Issue: Protection of Ppts

A

Ppts should be protected psychologically and physically.
Must not be placed at more risk then they would be in everyday life.

78
Q

Ethical Issue: Confidentiality

A

Ensuring ppts details and data remain anonymous so they can’t be identified in the research.
The researcher can use fake names/ initials to keep confidentiality e.g. patient KF.

79
Q

British Psychological Society’s Ethical Guidelines: Deception

A

Debrief - post research interview, ppt told true aims of research and full details of study are given.
Ppts should be given right to withdraw their data from publication.
Ppts in extreme cases may feel embarrassed/ stressed as a result of the procedures used in the research, therefore they should be offered counselling.

80
Q

British Psychological Society’s Ethical Guidelines: Informed Consent

A

Ppts should be given consent form detailing true nature and aims of the study.
A child under 16 cannot give consent, therefore the consent could be given through a parent.
If consent wasn’t gained from ppts in the study, a debrief should be given and ppts can give retrospective consent, ppts may wish to withdraw their data if they don’t consent.

81
Q

British Psychological Society’s Ethical Guidelines: Protection of Participants

A

Right to withdraw - ppts should be offered right to withdraw at any point during/ after research has taken place.
Debrief - reassure the ppts that their behaviour’s normal, offer counselling to all ppts.

82
Q

British Psychological Society’s Ethical Guidelines: Confidentiality

A

Anonymity- all participants should be kept anonymous e.g. use of initials.

Psychology (30 decks)

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