Social Influence

Question 1

What is compliance ?

(Types and Explanations of Conformity)

Answer 1

A superficial and temporary type of conformity - “going along” with others in public, no private change in opinions/behaviour. The behaviour stops as soon as pressure from the group stops

Question 2

What is identification ?

(Types and Explanations of Conformity)

Answer 2

A moderate type of conformity - a person values the group and wants to be part of it – public change in opinions/behaviours to fit in. Might not privately agree with everything the majority does

Question 2

What is internalisation ?

(Types and Explanations of Conformity)

Answer 2

A deep type of conformity - a person genuinely accepts the group norms – private and public change of opinions/behaviour. Change likely to be permanent and will persist in the absence of the group

Question 2

What is normative social influence ?

(Types and Explanations of Conformity)

Answer 2

This one is all about ‘norms’ – what is normal
Norms regulate our behaviour due to the need to be liked - we agree for social approval
Emotional process

Question 3

What is informational social influence ?

(Types and Explanations of Conformity)

Answer 3

The need to be right – we agree with the opinion of the majority because we believe it is correct - we walso want to be correct
Cognitive process

Question 4

Asch’s study - Lack ecological validity

Evaluation - Strength - Normative social influence - Research support ?

(Types and Explanations of Conformity)

Answer 4

Point - In Asch’s study, it was found that the naïve participants went along with the incorrect answers given by the confederates because they felt self-conscious about giving the correct answer, they conformed to avoid rejection

Counter - results from Asch’s study may lack ecological validity – possibly due to the effects of demand characteristics – Ps all knew they were part of an experiment and may have “gone along” with what they felt was expected of them

Question 5

Differences in need to be liked - nomothetic

Evaluation - Limitation - Normative social influence - Doesn’t affect everybody’s behaviour the same way ?

(Types and Explanations of Conformity)

Answer 5

Point - some people care more about being liked than others. McGhee and Teevan found students with a high need to be liked were more likely to conform

I&D - takes a nomothetic approach by attempting to make general laws of behaviour. But the existence of individual differences suggests a more idiographic approach would be preferable

Question 6

Lucas et al math problems - jeness jelly beans

Evaluation - Strength - Informational social influence - Research support ?

(Types and Explanations of Conformity)

Answer 6

Point - Lucas et al - students asked to give answers to mathematical problems - greater conformity to incorrect answers when they were difficult rather than easy. There was even greater conformity for those rated with poor mathematical ability

Further - Jenness – gave Ps the task where there were no clear answers estimate jellybeans in a jar. Firstly, Ps gave answers privately. They was then asked to work in a group and create a group estimate. Finally, they was given the opportunity to change their answer privately, Jenness found almost all the participants estimates changed because they believed the group estimate to be correct

Question 7

Types of people - nomothetic

Evaluation - Limitation - Informational social influence - Doesnt effect everyones behaviour in the same way ?

(Types and Explanations of Conformity)

Answer 7

Point - Individual differences show that not all types of people conform. Asch – found that students were less conformist (28%) than other participants (37%)

I&D - takes nomothetic approach by attempting to make general laws of human behaviour whereas individual differences suggest a more idiographic approach preferable

Question 8

What was the aim and procedures of Asch’s research ?

(Ash’s Research)

Answer 8

Aim:
Investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could make a person to conform

Procedure:
Ps = 123 American, male undergraduates
Shown
Card 1 – Standard line
Card 2 – 3 “comparison lines” – 1 same as standard, 2 clearly wrong
Ps asked which of the 3 lines on card 2 matched the standard
Each naïve P tested individually with a group of 6 – 8 confederates
First 6 trials, Cs gave right answers, then started to make errors on the following 12 “critical trials”

Question 9

What were the findings and conclusions of Asch’s study ?

(Ash’s Research)

Answer 9

Findings:
Ps gave wrong answer 37% of the time
75% conformed at least once

Conclusion:
When Ps interviewed afterwards, most said they conformed to avoid rejection

Question 10

How does group size effect conformity ?

(Ash’s Research)

Answer 10

Aim - find out if the size of a group is more important than agreement of group
Findings – with 3 Cs, conformity rose to 32% but addition of further Cs made little difference
Conclusion - no need for a majority more than 3

Question 11

How does unaniminity effect conformity ?

(Ash’s Research)

Answer 11

Aim – to know if presence of another, non-conforming person would affect P’s conformity
Findings – conformity was reduced by 25% from what it was when the majority was unanimous
Conclusions – presence of dissenter enabled naïve P to behave more independently

Question 12

How does task difficulty effect conformity ?

(Ash’s Research)

Answer 12

Aim – to find out if conformity increases if task is more difficult
Findings – conformity increased when task was made more difficult
Conclusion – suggests informational social influence plays greater role when task more difficult

Question 13

Perrin and Spencer Engineer study - lacks ecological validity

Evaluation - Limitation - Lacks Temporal Validity ?

(Ash’s Research)

Answer 13

Point - Perrin and Spencer repeated the study with engineering students in UK in 1980s – only 1 out of 396 conformed. This may show that people in 1950s America were particularly conformist as people conformed to social norms

Further – In addition, it lacks ecological validity, not a common task and may not have been viewed as serious by the participants, meaning there was no reason not to conform. They may have experienced Demand Characteristics –knew they were part of experiment, may have “gone along”.

Question 14

Sample of men and individualist culture - Androcentric / Ethnocentric

Evaluation - Limitation - Lacks population Validity ?

(Ash’s Research)

Answer 14

Point - Asch only tested American men. This doesn’t reveal if women are more or less conformist than men. The study was also in the USA which is a more individualistic culture, studies in collectivist cultures found higher conformity rates

I&D – Asch’s study suffers from Androcentrism; the conclusions were focused on men and we may be unable generalise these to women. Asch’s study also suffers from being Ethnocentric, we may be unable to generalise the findings to more collectivist cultures in which the group is more important than the individual

Question 15

Ps deceived - Ethical issues

Evaluation - Limitation – Ethical Issues ?

(Ash’s Research)

Answer 15

Point - Asch’s study was unethical the Naïve Ps were deceived and thought confederates were genuine Ps. Bogdonoff et al suggested Ps may have been distressed through not agreeing with others, it is the ethical duty of a psychologist not to cause emotional or physical harm

I&D – The study presents various ethical issues. The issue of deception means there was a lack of informed consent. It is also possible that the research was socially sensitive as it could have had possible negative emotional effects on Ps

Question 16

What was the aim and procedure of Zimbardo’s research ?

(Zimbardo’s Research)

Answer 16

Aim - he wanted to see if behaviour was determined by social norms and social roles

Procedure - Set up a Mock Prison in basement of Stanford University

Advertised for students willing to volunteer – selected those deemed ‘emotionally stable’

Ps were randomly assigned to be a Prisoner or a guard

Question 17

What were the findings and conclusions of Zimbardo’s research ?

(Zimbardo’s Research)

Answer 17

Findings:
After a slow start, the guards took up their roles with enthusiasm
Their behaviour became a threat to the health and safety of prisoners, the study was stopped after 6 days
Guards used divide and rule tactics by playing prisoners against each other, harassed them with headcounts in the middle of the night, punished smallest misdemeanours,
Prisoners originally rebelled, but after treatment from guards, prisoners became subdued, depressed and anxious. One prisoner was released on first day because they had symptoms of psychological disturbance
Guards identified more and more closely with their role. They became more brutal and aggressive.

Conclusion:
Study revealed the power of the situation to influence people’s behaviours, it is more important than their personalities

Question 18

No protection from harm for Ps - Socially sensitive

Evaluation - Limitation - Ethical issues ?

(Zimbardo’s Research)

Answer 18

Point - the study was extremely unethical and Zimbardo did not take care for his participants 1 P wanted to leave the study and spoke to Z. Z responded as a superintendent worried about the running of his prison rather than as a researcher with responsibilities to protect his participants from harm

I&D – The entire study is socially sensitive research due to potentially far-reaching consequences for Ps. Prisoners suffered from depression and anxiety which may have lasted long after study ended

Question 19

Failed to replicate - BBC prison recreation study

Evaluation - Limitation – Lack of Research Support ?

(Zimbardo’s Research)

Answer 19

Point – other studies have failed to replicate the same findings as Zimbardo

Explain - BBC Prison Study – Reicher and Haslam – partial replication of study – findings very different to Z’s – prisoners took control and subjected guards to harassment and disobedience

Question 20

Minimise role of personality - Guards behaviour free will

Evaluation - Limitation – Zimbardo underrates the role of dispositional factors ?

(Zimbardo’s Research)

Answer 20

Point - Fromm – accused Zimbardo of exaggerating the power of the situation to influence behaviour and minimising the role of personality factors. 1/3 guards behaved brutally 1/3 keen on applying rules fairly, 1/3 actively tried to help and support prisoners

I&D – This suggests the behaviour of the guards was not a product of environmental determinism but free will

Question 21

What is obedience ?

(Milgram’s Research)

Answer 21

Form of social influence in which an individual follows a direct order. The person issuing the order is usually a figure of authority

Question 22

What was the aim and procedure of Milgram’s study ?

(Milgram’s Research)

Answer 22

Aim – How far would people go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person

Procedure:
40 male Ps aged 20-50, jobs ranging from unskilled to professional
Recruited through newspaper adverts and flyers by saying he was doing a study on memory
1 Confederate - always Learner, P always “Teacher”, 2nd actor – Experimenter dressed in lab coat

Ps told they could leave at any time

Learner strapped in chair in another room and wired with electrodes. Teacher had to give learner increasingly severe electric shock each time learner made a mistake
Shock level started at 15and went up 30 levels to 450 volts

At 300 volts learner pounded on wall and gave no response to next question
After 315 volts learner pounded on wall but after that no further response from learner
When teacher turned to experimenter for guidance he gave standard “prods” –
1) Please continue
2)The experiment requires that you contine
3) it is absolutely essential that you continue
4) you have no other choice, you must go on

Question 23

What was the findings and conclusions of Milgram’s study ?

(Milgram’s Research)

Answer 23

Findings
No Ps stopped below 300 volts
12.5% stopped at 300 volts, 65% continued to highest level of 450 volts

Ps showed signs of extreme tension – sweating, stuttering, digging fingernails into hands.
3 had full blown uncontrollable seizures
All Ps debriefed and assured behaviour was normal.
Follow up questionnaire – 84% reports they felt glad to have participated

Conclusion - Ordinary people are obedient even when asked to do something that goes against their own morality. Suggests it is not evil people that commit atrocities

Question 24

Orne & Holland claim Ps didnt beleive study - Puppy recreation study

Evaluation - Limitation – Low internal validity ?

(Milgram’s Research)

Answer 24

Point - Orne and Holland argued Ps behaved that way because they didn’t really believe the set up, they guessed it wasn’t real electric shocks. Gina Perry – listened to tapes of Milgram’s Ps and reported many of them expressed doubts about the shocks

Counter - However Sheridan and King conducted a similar study where real shocks were given to a puppy. 54% male Ps and 100% female Ps delivered what they thought was a fatal shock

Question 25

Generalisation of study to nurses - Different nurses study realisitic

Evaluation - Strength – Good ecological validity ?

(Milgram’s Research)

Answer 25

Point -Milgram’s findings can be generalised to other settings and situations. Milgram argued the lab environment accurately reflected wider authority relationships in real life. Hofling et al – studied nurses on hospital ward – found levels of obedience to unjustified demands from doctors were very high – 21/22 nurses obeyed

Counter – Rank and Jacobson – replicated Hoflings’s study on nurses altering some unrealistic aspects which would not normally occur in real life - Only 2/18 nurses obeyed

Question 26

Deception for Ps - Socially sensitive / Unwanted feelings

Evaluation - Limitation - Ethical Issues ?

(Milgram’s Research)

Answer 26

Point – the study suffers from being highly unethical due to deception involved. Ps told that allocation of roles as “teacher” and “learner” were random. Ps also deceived that shocks were real. Diana Baumrind claims deceptions are a betrayal of trust that could damage the reputation of psychologists and their research

I&D – Deception can cause anxiety and stress for Ps. In addition, the participants cannot give informed consent. The research is socially sensitive research due to potentially far-reaching consequences for Ps

Question 27

what are the three situational variables effecting obedience ?

(Situational Variables)

Answer 27

Proximity
Location
Uniform

Question 28

How does proximity effect obedience ?

(Situational Variables)

Answer 28

1st Proximity variation – teacher and learner in same room
Findings – obedience rate dropped from 65% to 40%

2nd Proximity variation – teacher had to force learner’s hand onto an “electroshock plate”
Findings – obedience dropped to 30%

3rd Proximity variation – experimenter left room and gave instructions to teacher by telephone
Findings – obedience dropped to 20.5%. Ps also often pretended to give shocks or gave weaker ones than they were ordered to

Conclusion
Proximity to authority figure increases obedience.
In situations which are having a negative impact on others, proximity to those being harmed decreases our obedience.

Question 29

How does location effect obedience ?

(Situational Variables)

Answer 29

Location variation – carried out in a run-down building
Findings – obedience fell to 47.5%
Conclusion – A more official or prestigious location increases obedience

Question 30

How does uniform effect obedience ?

(Situational Variables)

Answer 30

Uniform variation – experimenter called away on phone-call at the start of the procedure. Role of experimenter taken over by “ordinary member of the public” (confederate) in everyday clothes
Findings – obedience rate dropped to 20%
Conclusion – an official uniform increases obedience

Question 31

Milkman,Security Guard, Suited study - Police,Business Exec,Beggar study

Evaluation - Strength – Supporting Evidence for Uniform Variation ?

(Situational Variables)

Answer 31

Point - Bickman conducted a field experiment which had 3 confederates dressed in different outfits (jacket and tie, milkman, security guard). They stood in street asking passers-by to perform tasks e.g. picking up litter or giving a coin for the parking meter. The found people were twice as likely to obey security guard than confederate in jacket and tie

Further– Bushman – a female researcher dressed as a police style uniform/as a business executive/ as a beggar. Stopped people in the street and told them to give change to a male researcher for a parking meter. More people obeyed when in police style uniform.

Question 32

Orne & Holland Ps didnt believe set up - Sheridan & King Puppy study

Evaluation - Limitation – Lack of Internal Validity ?

(Situational Variables)

Answer 32

Point - Orne and Holland argued Ps behaved that way because they didn’t really believe the set up. Even more likely that Ps in the variation studies would realise because of extra manipulation

Counter - However Sheridan and King conducted a similar study where real shocks were given to a puppy. 54% male Ps and 100% female Ps delivered what they thought was a fatal shock

Question 33

Deception of Ps - Socially Sensitive - Alibi evil behaviour

Evaluation - Limitation – Ethical Issues ?

(Situational Variables)

Answer 33

Point - Ps told that allocation of roles as “teacher” and “learner” were random. Ps also deceived that shocks were real. Diana Baumrind suggested that deceptions were a betrayal of trust that could damage the reputation of psychologists and their research

I&D – Deception can cause anxiety and stress for Ps and prevent them from giving informed consent. Socially sensitive research – due to potentially far-reaching consequences for Ps – humiliation and guilt at administering shocks.

Furthermore, Mandel – argues it offers an excuse or “alibi” for evil behaviour

Question 34

What are social psychological factors ?

(Situational Explanations)

Answer 34

Social Psychological Factors are based on Social Hierarchies and their influences

Question 35

What was Adolf Eichmann’s defence ?

(Situational Explanations)

Answer 35

Eichmann was charged under law to punish Nazis and their collaborators. He was charged on 15 counts

Since he could not deny the crime, he disowned the responsibility for them. “He was just following orders”

Argued that he was unable to resist carrying out these orders

Question 36

What are the autonomous and agentic states ?

(Situational Explanations)

Answer 36

‘autonomous state’ – means where we are free to behave and feel a sense of responsibility for our own actions

‘agentic state’ is the opposite – mental state where we feel no personal responsibility for our behaviour because we believe ourselves to be acting on behalf of an authority figure - frees us from our conscience

We experience an ‘agentic shift’ – Milgram claims this occurs when a person perceives someone else as a figure of authority

Question 37

Why do we stay in the agentic state ?

(Situational Explanations)

Answer 37

binding factors – these are aspects of the situation that allow the person to ignore or minimise the damaging effect of their behaviour and reduce the ‘moral strain’ they are feeling

Strategies the individual uses to reduce moral strain:
Shifting responsibility to victim – he was foolish to volunteer
Denying the damage they were doing to victims

Question 38

Milgram claims quick shift states - Lifton gradual shift Auschwitz docs

Evaluation - Limitation – Contradicting Research ?

(Situational Explanations)

Answer 38

Point – Counterevidence suggests that situations cause a change in the way individuals think and behave

Explain - Milgram - claimed people can shift rapidly back and forth between autonomous and agentic state. However - Lifton – found very gradual and irreversible transition in study of German doctors at Auschwitz - changed from ordinary medical professionals concerned with welfare of their patients into men and women capable of carrying our vile and lethal experiments on the prisoners

Furthermore - Staub suggests that rather than agentic state being responsible for actions of Holocaust perpetrators, it is the experience of carrying out acts of evil over a long time that changes the way individuals think and behave

Question 39

Dispositional factors - Zimbardo support - obedience free will

Evaluation - Limitation – Milgram’s study doesn’t account for individual differences ?

(Situational Explanations)

Answer 39

Point - Milgram - admitted that there might be other explanations for obedience in his study rather than Agentic Shift – Dispositional Factors - signs of cruelty among Ps who had used the situation to express their sadistic impulses

Explain - Zimbardo Prison Study – supports this – guards inflicted rapidly escalating cruelty despite the fact there was no obvious authority figure instructing them to do so

I&D - suggests obedience is not a product of environmental determinism but free will – we are self determining and free to choose our own actions

Question 40

What is the legitimacy of authority ?

(Situational Explanations)

Answer 40

Most societies are structured in a hierarchical way, meaning there are people who hold authority over the rest of us
Their authority is legitimate – society agrees in their power, it allows for society to function smoothly
We are willing to give up some of our independence and to hand control of our behaviour over to people we trust to exercise their authority appropriately

Question 41

What is destructive authority ?

(Situational Explanations)

Answer 41

Problems arise when legitimate authority becomes destructive

Charismatic leaders (e.g. Hitler) can use their legitimate powers for destructive purposes

Question 42

Students blame experimenter - My Lai Massacre

Evaluation - Strength – Research Support ?

(Situational Explanations)

Answer 42

Point - Blass and Schmitt – showed film of Milgram’s study to students and asked them to identify who they felt was responsible for the harm to the learner. Students blamed the “experimenter” rather than the P. Students also indicated that responsibility was due to legitimate authority – experimenter was at the top of the hierarchy

Real Life Application – War crimes – Kelman and Hamilton – My Lai Massacre – can be understood in terms of power hierarchy in the US army
I&D and Counter- Mandel – argues it offers an excuse or “alibi” for evil behaviour

Question 43

What did Adorno want to find ?

(Dispositional Explanations)

Answer 43

Adorno wanted to understand the Holocaust. He argued that a high level of obedience was a psychological disorder, and he tried to locate the cause in the personality of the individual

Question 44

What was the procedure and findings of Adorno’s study ?

(Dispositional Explanations)

Answer 44

Procedure:
2000 middle class, white Americans and their unconscious attitudes towards other groups (especially other racial groups)
They developed a number of scales – one of these is the Fascism Scale

Findings:
People with authoritarian leanings identified with ‘strong’ people and were disapproving and disliking of ‘weak’ people
They are conscious of their own and others status, they show excessive respect and deference to those of higher status
They had fixed and distinctive stereotypes of different groups
Strong positive correlation between authoritarianism and prejudice

Conclusion:
Adorno concluded that people with an authoritarian personality are especially obedient to authority

Question 44

What was the procedure and findings of Adorno’s study ?

(Dispositional Explanations)

Answer 44

Procedure:
2000 middle class, white Americans and their unconscious attitudes towards other groups (especially other racial groups)
They developed a number of scales – one of these is the Fascism Scale

Findings:
People with authoritarian leanings identified with ‘strong’ people and were disapproving and disliking of ‘weak’ people
They are conscious of their own and others status, they show excessive respect and deference to those of higher status
They had fixed and distinctive stereotypes of different groups
Strong positive correlation between authoritarianism and prejudice

Conclusion:
Adorno concluded that people with an authoritarian personality are especially obedient to authority

Question 45

Where does an authoritarian personality originate ?

(Dispositional Explanations)

Answer 45

Formed in childhood, result of harsh parenting - expectation of absolute loyalty to parents, strict discipline, high standards, severe criticism of failings, conditional love

Adorno suggested these experiences create resentment and hostility in children
So fear is displaced onto others who are perceived as weaker

Question 46

F-Scale politically biased - Right and left wing similarities

Evaluation - Limitation – Political Bias of the F-Scale ?

(Dispositional Explanations)

Answer 46

Point – The F-Scale measures tendency towards an extreme form of Right-Wing ideology, but not extreme Left-Wing Ideology

Explain - Christie and Jahoda (1954) argued the F-Scale is a politically biased interpretation of authoritarian personality, they point out the reality of left-wing authoritarianism, such as Chinese Maoism, which aimed to overthrow Capitalism in China to install a new Political State

Further – extreme Right-Wing and extreme Left-Wing have much in common – both emphasise the importance of complete obedience to legitimate political authority

Question 47

F-Scale linked childhood - Correlation authoritarian and obedience

Evaluation - Strength – Research Support ?

(Dispositional Explanations)

Answer 47

Point - Elms and Milgram – used Ps who had previously taken part in Milgram’s experiments. Selected 20 “obedient” and 20 “defiant” Ps. Ps completed F scale to measure levels of authoritarianism and asked questions about their relationships with parents during childhood and their attitude towards the experimenter and learner in the task - Found higher levels of authoritarianism among “obedient” Ps compared to “defiant” Ps

Counter – Hymen and Sheatsley - This is merely a correlation between levels of authoritarianism and obedience and makes it impossible to conclude that the Authoritarian personality causes obedience – could be a third factor

Question 48

Nazi Germany all obedient despite personality difference - L of A shows

Evaluation - Strength – Limited Explanation ?

(Dispositional Explanations)

Answer 48

Point – It is Hard to explain obedient behaviour in the majority of a country’s population. In pre-war Germany – millions of individuals all displayed obedient, racist and anti-Semitic behaviour despite the fact they would have differed in their personalities but its unlikely they would all be authoritarian

Further – Social Psychological Factors such as the Legitimacy of authority – may be a better explanation of how entire population were obedient

Question 49

What is resistance to social influence ?

(Resistance to Social Influence)

Answer 49

Refers to the ability of people to withstand the social pressure to conform to the majority or to obey to authority. This ability to withstand social pressure is influenced by both situational and dispositional factors

Question 50

What is social support and how does it help resistance to social influence ?

(Resistance to Social Influence)

Answer 50

the presence of people who resist pressures to conform or obey can help others to do the same

Social Support and Conformity:
Pressure to conform can be reduced if there are other people who aren’t conforming
Asch showed this with ‘unanimity’ as a variable affecting conformity
Dissenter doesn’t have to give the right answer – simply not conforming is enough to allow a person to be free to follow their own conscience

Social Support and Obedience:
Pressure to obey can be reduced if there is another person seen not to obey
In 1 of Milgram’s Variations – obedience dropped from 65% to 10% when the genuine participant was joined by a disobedient confederate
Participant might not follow disobedient person to the point, but their disobedience acts as a model for the participant to copy that allows them to free themselves from their own conscience

Question 51

Dissenter support didnt need to be valid - social support

Evaluation - Strength – Research Support for Resisting Conformity ?

(Resistance to Social Influence)

Answer 51

Point - Allen and Levine – found conformity decreased when there was one dissenter in an Asch-type study. This occurred even if dissenter wore thick glasses and said he had difficulty with his vision – so his support was not particularly valid as he was not in the best position to judge lines

I&D – social support is a situational explanation of resistance to conformity and is an example of environmental determinism, stating we have no personal free will over the extent to which we conform/obey or resist. Our ability to resist conformity and obeying is dependent on whether somebody else within the environment resists

Question 52

Gamson higher resistance levels oil smear campaighn - Gestapo vs Jews

Evaluation - Strength – Research Support for Resisting Obedience ?

(Resistance to Social Influence)

Answer 52

Point - Gamson et al – found higher levels of resistance in their study than Milgram. Ps were in groups and were instructed to produce evidence that would be used to help an oil company run a smear campaign – 88% of Ps rebelled

Real Life Application – Rosenstrasse Protest – Gestapo (Nazi police) were holding 2000 Jewish men captive. Relatives of the Jewish captives protested against with the Gestapo agents who threatened to open fire if they didn’t disperse, and demanded their release. Despite the threats the men were eventually set free

Question 53

What is the locus of control ?

(Resistance to Social Influence)

Answer 53

Concept proposed by Julian Rotter

Internal LOC – believe things that happen to them are controlled by themselves

External LOC believe things happen without their control

Continuum – somewhere inbetween

Question 54

what characteristics come with the locuse’s of control ?

(Resistance to Social Influence)

Answer 54

People with Internal LOC more likely to resist pressures to conform or obey

People with High Internal LOC tend to be more self-confident, have higher intelligence and less need for social approval

Question 55

Internals vs Externals - Positive correlation LOC social influence

Evaluation - Strength - Research Support for LOC and resistance to obedience ?

(Resistance to Social Influence)

Answer 55

Point - Holland – repeated Milgram’s first study – measured whether Ps were internals or externals. 37% of internals didn’t continue to the highest shock level compared to only 23% externals – internals showed greater resistance to authority

Further – Avtgis – carried out meta-analysis of studies on relationship between LOC and social influence. Showed significant positive correlation – those who scored higher on external LOC tend to be more easily persuaded and influenced and more likely to conform than internals

Question 56

Chane over time - temporal validity

Evaluation - Limitation – Contradictory Research ?

(Resistance to Social Influence)

Answer 56

Point - Twenge et al – analysed data from American LOC studies over a 40 year period – data showed that people have become more resistant to obedience but also more external. If resistance were linked to internal LOC we would expect people to have become more internal

Further – research into locus of control may lack temporal validity and cannot be generalised to how and why people resist obedience today

Question 57

what is minority influence and how is it different to conformity ?

(Minority Influence)

Answer 57

a form of social influence in which a minority of people persuade others to adopt their beliefs, attitudes or behaviours

which is usually a majority doing the influencing

Question 58

How does consistency effect minority influence ?

(Minority Influence)

Answer 58

consistency of a minorities view increases the amount of interest from other people
Synchronic Consistency - agreement between people in the minority group – all saying the same thing
Diachronic Consistency – consistency over time – they’ve been saying the same thing for some time

Being consistent makes others start to rethink their own views

Question 59

How does commitment effect minority influence ?

(Minority Influence)

Answer 59

Remaining committed suggests certainty, confidence and courage in the face of a hostile majority and catches there attention
may take the form of extreme activities or personal sacrifice

Augmentation Principle - Commitment and sacrifices may persuade the majority to take them more seriously or convert to the minority position

Question 60

How does flexibility effect minority influence ?

(Minority Influence)

Answer 60

Too much consistency – repeating the same arguments and behaviours – can be seen as rigid, unbending and inflexible – can be off-putting to the majority

Minority is less powerful than majority so can’t enforce their view, must negotiate - need to adapt their point of view and accept reasonable counter-arguments

Need to strike a balance between consistency and flexibility

Question 61

What is the snowball effect ?

(Minority Influence)

Answer 61

Over time increasing numbers of people switch from the majority view to the minority view
The more this happens, the faster the rate of conversion
Gradually the minority view becomes the majority view

Question 62

Consistent minorities - Minorities influential

Evaluation - Strength – Research support demonstrating importance of consistency ?

(Minority Influence)

Answer 62

Point - there is research support for the importance of consistency. Moscovici et al – showed that consistent minorities have a greater effect than an inconsistent opinion

Further Research – Wood et al – meta analysis – almost 100 similar studies – found that minorities who were seen as being consistent were most influential

Question 63

What was the aim and procedure of Moscovi Et Al’s study ?

(Minority Influence)

Answer 63

Aim - To study the effects of consistency on minority influence

Procedure:
Each group – 4 naïve Ps and 2 confederates
Asked to view 36 blue slides that varied in intensity and state whether they were blue or green
“Consistent” condition – confederates said slides were green every time
“Inconsistent” condition – confederates said slides were green 2/3 of the time and blue 1/3 of the time

Question 64

What was the findings and conclusion of Moscovi Et Al’s study ?

(Minority Influence)

Answer 64

Findings:
“Consistent” condition – naïve Ps said green over 8% of trials
“Inconsistent” condition – naïve Ps said green on 1.25% of trials

Conclusion - The consistent minority had more influence

Question 65

Majority vs Minority conflicting view - Understanding majority view

Evaluation - Strength – Research support for ‘Depth of Thought’ ?

(Minority Influence)

Answer 65

Point – there is research evidence to show that change to a minority position does involve deeper processing of ideas

Explain - Martin et al – gave participants a message supporting a view point. Group 1 heard a minority agree with the message, Group 2 heard a majority agree. Participants were then exposed to a conflicting view and their attitudes were measured. They found participants were less willing to change their opinions and agree with the conflicting view if they had listened to the minority group.

Counterargument – Mackie – argues majority influence creates deeper information processing. We believe majority share similar beliefs to us, so if they express a different one we must consider it carefully to understand why

Question 66

Lack mundane realism - Real life factors

Evaluation - Limitation – Research studies have limited real world application ?

(Minority Influence)

Answer 66

Point – The studies that support minority influence have limited real world application.

Explain - Tasks involved in research are artificial and don’t reflect how minorities attempt to change the behaviour of majorities in real life – low mundane realism

Real- life Applications – in real-life situations there is more involved in the difference between a minority and majority than just numbers – majorities usually have lot more power and status than minorities. Most studies do not capture the commitment that minorities show towards their causes, including the social support that members give each other when they face hostile opposition.

Question 67

How does social change through conformity occur ?

(Social Influence & Social Change)

Answer 67

By drawing attention to what the maority are doing

Campaigners can carry out ‘Social Norms Interventions’ - correcting any misperceptions of what the majority do/think

Question 68

How does social change through obedience occur ?

(Social Influence & Social Change)

Answer 68

Zimbardo - claims obedeince can create social change through gradual commitment
Once a small instruction is obeyed it becomes more diffficult to disobey bigger ones

Question 69

occurs slowly/minority indirect -

Evaluation - Limitation – Social Influence through minority influence is indirect and delayed ?

(Social Influence & Social Change)

Answer 69

Point - Nemeth - Social change happens slowly, if at all and the influence of a minority is more indirect and may not be seen for some time

Further – Mackie –majority influence creates deeper processing which in turn means If an opinion is held by the minority, we may disregard it and assume it is wrong because the majority do not share it

Question 70

Nolan et al energy usage = normative - Dejong students drinking

Evaluation - Strength – Research support for effect of Majority influence on social change ?

(Social Influence & Social Change)

Answer 70

Point - Nolan et al – hung messages on front doors of houses. First group – message was that most residents were trying to reduce their energy usage. Second group – just asked them to save energy. Found significant decreases in energy usage in first group compared to second group, this shows conformity being caused by normative social influence

Counter – Dejong et al – tested the effectiveness of social norms marketing campaigns to drive down alcohol use among students. Despite receiving information correcting misperceptions of drinking norms, students did not show lower perceptions of student drinking levels or report lower alcohol consumption

Question 71

Negative perceptions of deviants - Bashir stereotypical tree huggers

Evaluation - Limitation – Research support for effect of Majority influence on social change ?

(Social Influence & Social Change)

Answer 71

Point - Being perceived as “deviant” limits the influence of minorities. Members of the majority may avoid aligning themselves with the minority position because they don’t want to be seen as deviant themselves
Ex. Protests that turn violent

Further– Bashir et al – found that Ps were less likely to be environmentally friendly because they didn’t want to be associated with stereotypical environmentalists which they perceived as “tree huggers”