Relationships Flashcards
What is sexual selection ?
(Evolutionary Explanations)
Charles Darwin’s - theory
Features that are attractive to the opposite sex are more likely to develop - more likely possessor will pass on genes
Sexual Selection – an evolutionary explanation of partner preference – attributes or behaviours that increase reproductive success are passed on – they drive evolution
Anisogamy – the differences between male and female gametes
* males have unlimited supply
* females are a rare resource
What is intra-sexual selection for females ?
(Evolutionary Explanations)
Between sex’s - strategies that males/females use to mate - mainly used by females
Females operate on - quality over quantity - as they make a bigger investment of time, commitment and resources
suggests why females are geneticaly choosy
Female’s optimum mating strategy – select a genetically fit partner who is able and willing to provide resources
What is intra-sexual selection for males ?
(Evolutionary Explanations)
Within each sex – strategies between males to be one who is selected – mainly used by males
Quantity over quality
Competition between males - winner reproduces
Consequences:
Physical – larger males have advantage in physical competition with other males – more likely to mate and pass on genes
Behavioural – to acquire fertile female and protect them from competing males – may benefit from behaving aggressively
Male’s optimum strategy – mate with as many fertile females as possible - due to minimum effort to produce sperm
preference for youth indicated through certain facial features and fertility indicated through certain body shapes
What is the relationship between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour ?
(Evolutionary Explanations)
Human Reproductive Behaviour – the different behaviours that humans exhibit in order to increase their reproductive success
males and females use different strategies to select a suitable mate
Gender Differences in Partner Preferences
Men - pay attention to other signs in a human female’s appearance that show her ability to produce healthy offspring
Women - look for the signs of male’s ability to provide resources and protect themselves and a child
University Campus volunteers - Alpha bias
Evaluation - Strength – Research Support for Female inter-sexual selection ?
(Evolutionary Explanations)
Point - Clark and Hatfield asked student volunteers to approach opposite sex students individually on a university campus. Asking the same question - ‘I’ve noticed you around the campus. I find you very attractive. Will you go to bed with me tonight?’. Makred gender differences in responses as 75% males said yes whereas 0% females said yes
I&D - Alpha bias due to evolutionary explanations of mate preference emphasise the differences
Buss survey - ‘Lonely Hearts’
Evaluation - Strength – Research Support for Gender Differences in Partner Preferences ?
(Evolutionary Explanations)
Point - Buss surveyed over 10,000 adults in 33 different countries, females put more importance on resource-related characteristics in a partner. Males preferred younger mates and put more value on signs of a female’s ability to reproduce
Further - Waynforth and Dunbar researched ‘lonely hearts’ columns in American newspapers. women tended to describe themselves in terms of physical attractiveness and youth. Men advertised their resources and intelligence
Gender Equality - Homosexual Relationships
Evaluation - Limitation – Ignores Social and Cultural Influences ?
(Evolutionary Explanations)
Point - Western societies have experienced significant changes in terms of gender equality and women’s independence. women in modern Western societies may no longer be looking for a man to provide them with resources and other qualities have become more important
Further - evolutionary explanations fail to account for homosexual relationships where choice of partner clearly does not result in reproductive success and has no evolutionary advantage
What is self disclosure theory ?
(Self Disclosure)
Self-Disclosure – revealing personal information
Theory – romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as their relationship develops and these self-disclosures can strengthen a romantic bond
Process
What is social penetration theory and how does it occur ?
(Self Disclosure)
Altman and Taylor
Social Penetration Theory – the gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else
Reciprocal exchange of information - partners reveal personal information to eachother
The more you exchange partners penetrate more deeply into each other’s lives and gain greater understanding of each other
What does breadth and depth of self-disclosure ?
(Self Disclosure)
As breadth and depth increases, partners become more committed
At the start of the relationship - people reveal a lot of low risk information
No breadth or depth
What is reciprocal disclosure ?
(Self Disclosure)
Reis and Shaver – for a relationship to develop and increase in breadth and depth, there must be reciprocal disclosure
Must be a balance of self-disclosure between both partners, this increases feelings of intimacy and deepens the relationship
Sprecher and Hendrick - Diary Entries
Evaluation - Strength - Research Support ?
(Self Disclosure)
Point - Sprecher and Hendrick studied couples who were dating and found that as self-disclosure increased, so did relationship satisfaction
Further - Laurenceau et al studied dating couples, asked Ps to write daily diary entries about progress in their relationships, found that self-disclosure and perception of disclosure in a partner led to greater feelings of intimacy in a couple. Th reverse was also true
Many Factors - Nomothetic
Evaluation - Limitation - Ignores other factors ?
(Self Disclosure)
Point - Theory ignores many other factors that can influence relationships cultural practices, personality. Theory ignores many other aspects of romantic attraction physical attractiveness, similarity of attitudes and complementarity
I&D - Theory takes a nomothetic approach by claiming that higher self-disclosure will indefinetly lead to greater relationship satisfaction for all types of relationships
USA vs China - Culture Bias
Evaluation - Limitation - Cultural Differences ?
(Self Disclosure)
Point - Theory was developed based on research in a Western, individualist culture, so it may not apply to collectivist cultures. Tang et al - found men and women in the USA tended to disclose more sexual thoughts and feelings than romantic partners in China however relationship satisfaction was high in both cultures
I&D - theory is subject to culture bias ignoring cultural differences and interpreting all behaviour through the “lens” of one’s own culture. Assuming that self-disclosure is an important factor in attraction in all cultures where this may not be the case
Symmetry
What is the importance of physical attractiveness and how is it displayed ?
(Physical Attractiveness)
Shackelford and Larsen – people with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive as it is an honest signal of genetic fitness
Males have a preference for females with neotenous (baby face) features
What is the halo effect and physical attractiveness stereotype ?
(Physical Attractiveness)
Halo Effect – when one distinguishing feature has a disproportionate influence on our judgements of a person’s other attributes
Physical Attractiveness Stereotype - We have preconceived ideas about the personality traits attractive people have – almost universally positive
What is the matching hypothesis ?
(Physical Attractivness)
common sense tells us that we can’t all form relationships with the most attractive people
Walster et al – proposed the matching hypothesis – People choose romantic partners who are roughly of similar physical attractiveness to each other
MACHO Scale - Nomothetic
Evaluation - Limitation - Individual Differences in the Importance of Physical Attractiveness ?
(Physical Attractivness)
Point - Towhey – asked Ps to rate individuals based on their photograph and some biographical information. Ps also asked to complete the MACHO scale measuring sexist attitudes and behaviours. Those who scored highly were more influence by the physical attractiveness
I&D - takes a nomothetic approach by attempting to make general laws of human behaviour whereas individual differences suggest a more idiographic approach preferable
Long Term Relationships - Beta-Bias
Evaluation - Limitation – Importance of Physical Attractiveness is Different for Men and Women ?
(Physical Attractivness)
Point - Meltzer et al found men rate their long-term relationships more satisfying if their partner is physically attractive. womens husband’s physical attractiveness did not relate to their wives’ relationship satisfaction
I&D - matching hypothesis may be suffering from beta-bias, as it assumes that men and women are very similar in their view of the importance of physical attractiveness
Feingold - Dating Website
Evaluation - Strength - Research Support for the Matching Hypothesis ?
(Physical Attractivness)
Point - Feingold’s meta-analysis of 17 studies using real-life couples found, strong correlation between the partners’ ratings of attractiveness
Counter - Taylor et al investigated the activity log on a dating website and found that website users were more likely to try and arrange a meeting with a potential partner who was more physically attractive than them
What is filter theory ?
(Filter Theory)
Kerckhoff and Davis theory
Field of Availables – entire set of potential romantic partners
3 factors narrow down our choice to identify field of desirables
What is social demography (1st level) ?
(Filter Theory)
Wide range of factors which influence the chances of potential partners meeting each other
- Proximity
- Social class
- Level of education
- Ethnic group / Religion
- Age
Homogamy – you are more likely to form a relationship with someone who is socially or culturally similar
What is Similarity in Attitudes (2nd Level of Filter) ?
(Filter Theory)
Individuals’ psychological characteristics – attitudes and basic values
Kerckhoff and Davis found similarity of attitudes is important to the development of romantic relationships. Best predictor of relationship becoming stable
There is a need for partners to agree over basic values early in the relationship
Filter out those who are dissimilar in attitudes and values so not in field of possible long-term partners
What is Complementarity of Needs (3rd Level of Filter) ?
(Filter Theory)
The ability of partners to meet each other’s needs
Two partners complement each other when they have traits that the other lacks
Complementarity is attractive as partners feel as though they form as whole - adds depth to relationship
Needs should be complementary rather than similar
Gruber - Baldini longitudinal study - Winch
Evaluation - Strength - Research Support ?
(Filter Theory)
Point - Gruber-Baldini et al’s longitudinal study of couples aged 21 found those similar in educational level and age at the start of the relationship are more succesful
Further - Winch found similarity of interests, attitudes and personality traits were very important for couples in the beginning of relationships and complementarity had more impact on long term relationships
Priorities - Temporal validity
Evaluation - Strength – Face Validity ?
(Filter Theory)
Point - theory is in line with most people’s experience of romantic relationships, suggests face validity. recognises that priorities in relationships change over time
Counter - contemporary psychologists question temporal validity as the way people form relationships are different from the 1960’s when study was first conducted. Social demographics may be less important as technology enables us to pursue partner outside of usual demographic
Arranged Marriages - Culture bias
Evaluation - Limitation – Doesn’t Recognise Cultural Differences ?
(Filter Theory)
Point - Filter Theory uses Ps from individualist, Western cultures. Individualist cultures value free choice in relationships. However, not the case in collectivist cultures where relationships are arranged and partners cant apply filters freely
I&D – Culture Bias – the theory Ignores cultural differences and interprets all behaviour from a Western viewpoint and therefore could be an example of an imposed etic
What are the assumptions of social exchange theory ?
(Social Exchange Theory)
People in romantic relationships both seek exchange
Romantic partners exchange rewards and costs
committed relationship is maintained when rewards exceed costs and potential alternatives are less attractive
we act out of self-interest but there is mutual interdependence
How do rewards, costs and profits work in relationships ?
(Social Exchange Theory)
Thibault and Kelley – in relationships we try to minimise losses and maximise gains
Rewards and costs are subjective
Value of rewards may change over the course of a relationship
opportunity cost - whereby you can only invest time and energy into current relationship
