Memory

Question 1

What was the aims and procedures of Baddeley’s coding study ?

(Coding, Capacity & Duration)

Answer 1

Aim - to know what format memory is stored in in the different memory stores

Procedure - Gave different lists of words to four groups of participants
Group 1 - Acoustically similar - words that sound similar
Group 2 - Acoustically disimilar - words that sound different
Group 3 - Semantically similar - words with similar meanings
Group 4 - Semantically disimilar - words with different meanings

Question 2

What were the findings of Baddeley’s coding study ?

(Coding, Capacity & Duration)

Answer 2

1) When recall completed immediately after hearing words
Ps did worse with semantically similar words
Conclusion - Information is coded acoustically in STM

2) When recall completed after 20 minutes
Ps did worse with acoustically similar words
Conclusion - Information is coded semantically in LTM

Question 3

Means little in everydat life - cannot generalise to different tasks

Evaluation - Limitation - Use of artificial stimuli ?

(Coding, Capacity & Duration)

Answer 3

Point - Words used had no meaning to participants so this tells us little about coding for everyday tasks

Further - this means we should be cautious about generalising the findings to different kinds of memory tasks

Question 4

How did Jacobs research capacity and what did he find ?

(Coding, Capacity & Duration)

Answer 4

Jacobs developed a technique to measure digital span:
P given 4 digits and asked to recall in correct order out loud
If correct given 5 digits and so on until P can’t recall the order correctly
This determines digital span

Findings - Mean span for digits was 9.3. Mean span for letters was 7.3

Question 5

How did Miller research capacity and what did he find ?

(Coding, Capacity & Duration)

Answer 5

Miller - observed everday practice
Memory Span in STM - STM is about 7 items (plus or minus 2)
Chunking - can recall 5 words as well as they can 5 letters by chunking – grouping sets of digits or letters into units or chunks

Question 6

Cowan STM is 4 chunks - Simon shorter memory larger chunks

Evaluation - Capacity - Limitation - STM may be shorter than originally claimed ?

(Coding, Capacity & Duration)

Answer 6

Point - Cowan reviewed research from other psychologists and found that the STM is shorter than miller claimed. He concluded the capacity of STM was only about 4 chunks

Further - Simon found that people had a shorter memory for larger chunks, such as eight-word phrases

Question 7

Explain Peterson and Peterson’s study into the duration of the STM and the findings ?

(Coding, Capacity & Duration)

Answer 7

Peterson and Peterson - Ps took part in 8 trials
On each trial, P given consonant syllable to remember and 3 digit numbers
P asked to count backwards from the 3-digit number until told to stop – this was to stop the Ps mentally rehearsing the consonant
On each trial, told to stop at a different time – 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds – called the retention interval

Conclusion - STM has very short duration unless we repeat something over and over again via verbal rehearsal

Question 8

What was the procedure, findings and conclusion of Bahrick et al’s duration of LTM study ?

(Coding, Capacity & Duration)

Answer 8

Procedure -
studied Ps between 17-74 years old
Obtained high school year books

Recall tested by:
Photo-recognition test of 50 photos from Ps’ yearbooks; and
Free recall test where Ps recalled all the names of their graduating class

Findings - Ps who were tested within 15 years of graduation were 90% accurate in photo recognition and 60% in free recall
After 48 years recall fell to about 70% for photo recollection and 30% in free recall

Conclusion - Shows LTM memory can last a very long time, up to a whole lifetime

Question 9

doesnt reflect real life - Bahrick et al LTM study used real-life means

Evaluation - Limitation - Artificial stimulus ?

(Coding, Capacity & Duration)

Answer 9

Peterson and Peterson’s study uses artificial stimulus, this doesnt refelct real life memory activities where we attempt to memorise more meaningful things - lacks mundane realism

Counter - Bahrick et al’s study into LTM used real-life meaningful memories providing higher external validity

Question 10

What is the multi store model ?

(Multi-Store Model)

Answer 10

Atkinson and Shriffin’s multi-store model describes how information flows through the memory system

Suggests memory is made up of three stores (Sensory Register, STM and LTM)

Question 11

Draw the multi store model ?

(Multi-Store Model)

Answer 11

Question 12

How does the sensory register work ?

(Multi-Store Model)

Answer 12

Stimulus from environment will pass in through the sensory register
Duration of material in the sensory register is less than half a second
They have an unlimited capacity
Information only passes further into MSM if you pay attention to it

Two main stores of sensory register
Iconic memory – visual information, coded visually
Echoic memory – audio information, coded acoustically

Question 13

How does the STM work ?

(Multi-Store Model)

Answer 13

Capacity - 7 + or - 2
Coding - Acoustic
Duration - 30 seconds unless rehearsed

To keep information in the STM, we perform maintenance rehearsal

Prolonged Rehearsal - If we rehearse it long enough it passes into LTM

Question 14

How does the LTM work ?

(Multi-Store Model)

Answer 14

Capacity – Psychologists believe it has unlimited capacity
Coding - Semantic
Duration - Potentially permanent, if rehearsed

Retrieval - Material is stored in LTM but when we want to recall it, it has to be transferred back into STM by a process called retrieval

Question 15

STM and LTM mix ups different - brain scan Beardsley activation brain

Evaluation - Strength - Research support that STM and LTM are seperate ?

(Multi-Store Model)

Answer 15

Point - Baddeley’s research on coding, shows we mix up words that sound similar in STM and mix up words with similar meanings in the LTM - shows that the STM and LTM are different

Further - studies using brain scanning techniques demonstrate there is a difference between STM and LTM . Beardsley found that prefrontal cortex active during STM tasks but not LTM tasks

Question 16

WMM different STM stores - More than 1 type of LTM

Evaluation - Limitation - More than one type of STM ?

(Multi-Store Model)

Answer 16

Point - The working memory model shows the STM is dividsed into a number of different stores with different capacities, durations and coding for each

Further - Research shows there is more than one type of LTM. We have different stores for our memories about the world and our memories for how to do things

Question 17

Logie states STM relies on LTM - MSM reductionist

Evaluation - Limitation - The STM and LTM may not be seperate ?

(Multi-Store Model)

Answer 17

Point - The MSM suggests the STM is involved before LTM. Logie states that the STM relies on the LTM and therefore cant come first

I&D - The MSM is reductionist and oversimplifies the memory structures and processes and focuses on the STM and LTM as seperate entities, they should take a more holistic view

Question 18

What are the 3 stores for LTM ?

(Types of Long Term Memory)

Answer 18

Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory

Question 19

What is the episodic store for memory ?

(Types of Long Term Memory)

Answer 19

Episodic - Our ability to recall events
Memories are time stamped
Remembers the details, context and emotions
Have to make a conscious effort to recall

Question 20

What is the semantic store for memory ?

(Types of Long Term Memory)

Answer 20

Semantic - Facts about the world
Contains a lot of concepts and is constantly added to
Memories are not time stamped
Information is less personal

Question 21

What is the procedural store for memory ?

(Types of Long Term Memory)

Answer 21

Procedural - Our memory for skills
Muscle based memory
Acquired through repetition and practice
We find it difficult to explain to people how to perform them

Question 22

HM unable to form new episodic other stores intact - idiographic

Evaluation - Strength - Supporting clinical evidence ?

(Types of Long Term Memory)

Answer 22

Point - Case study of HM whom underwent surgery for epilepsy whereby he was unable to form new episodic memories but was still able to remember procedural task and semantic memory seems unaffected

I&D - as these case studies focus on one P, it takes an idiographic approach, this means meaningful generalisations cannot be made

Question 23

Tulving PETscan different parts of brain dif memories - bio-reductionist

Evaluation - Strength - Supporting evidence from brain scans ?

(Types of Long Term Memory)

Answer 23

Point - Tulving et al got Ps to perform different memory tasks while brains were scanned using a PET scanner. Found episodic and semantic memories were both recalled from different hemispheres of the brain. Shows different types of memory are stored in different parts of the brain

I&D - Tulving’s research is biologically reductionist and it localises types of LTM to specific regions of the brain. Fails to take account of all the different biological and cognitive processes involved

Question 24

Memory loss old = episodic - Belleville intervention episodic memory

Evaluation - Strength - Real life application ?

(Types of Long Term Memory)

Answer 24

Point - Memory loss in old age is specific to episodic memory

Further - Belleville et al devised an intervention for older people targeting episodic memory, which improved their memory compared to a control group

Question 25

Draw the working memory model ?

(Working Memory Model)

Answer 25

Question 26

What is the working memory model ?

(Working Memory Model)

Answer 26

Explanation of how the STM is organised and functions

Concerned with the part of the mind that is active when temporarily storing or manipulating information

Question 27

What is the role of the central executive ?

(Working Memory Model)

Answer 27

monitors incoming data, it is involved in decision making and allocates ‘slave systems’ to tasks
Has a very limited capacity
Doesnt code information

Question 28

What is the role of the phonological loop ?

(Working Memory Model)

Answer 28

One of the slave systems

Deals with auditory information
Preserves the order in which information arrives

Divides into:
Phonological store - stores words you hear
Articulatory control system - allows for maintenance rehearsal

Acesses LTM to store and retrieve information about language stores

Question 29

What is the role of the visuo spatial sketchpad ?

(Working Memory Model)

Answer 29

Stores visual/spatial information

Logie subdivided into:
Visual cache - stores visual data
Inner scribe - records the arangements of objects in the visual field

Accesses the LTM to store and retrive visual-spatial information

Question 30

What is the role of the episodic buffer ?

(Working Memory Model)

Answer 30

Temporary store for information
Integrates visual, spatial and verbal information
maintains a sense of time sequencing
Sends information to the LTM

Question 31

KF brain damage poor verbal/good visual - idiographic

Evaluation - Strength - Supporting clinical evidence ?

(Working Memory Model)

Answer 31

Point - Case study of KF who suffered brain damage, had poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information. Suggests phonological loop had been damaged but other parts of WMM intact

I&D - Use of case study means idiograophic approach was taken, this means meaningful generalisations cannot be made

Question 32

Baddeley dual comp study competition for slave system - artificial stim

Evaluation - Strength - Research support ?

(Working Memory Model)

Answer 32

Point - Baddeley et al’s dual performance study showed P’s had more difficulty doing two visual tasks than doing a visual and verbal task. Suggests that when doing two visual tasks they were competing for the same slave system

Counter - Study used artificial stimulus material, these dont reflect real-life memory activities and therefore lacks mundane realism

Question 33

CE least understood - central execustives job needs specifying

Limitation - Lack of clarity over what the central executive is ?

(Working Memory Model)

Answer 33

Point - Baddley said the CE was the most important but least understood component of the working memory

Further - there must be more for the central executive than just being for attention. The central executives job needs to be more clearly specified. Some claim it may have more componants

Question 34

What is interference ?

(Interference)

Answer 34

When two pieces of information conflict with eachother, resulting in regretting one or both, pieces of information

Question 35

What is proactive interfernce ?

(Interference)

Answer 35

When an older memory interferes with a newer memory

Question 36

What is retroactive interfernce ?

(Interference)

Answer 36

When a newer memory interferes with an older memory

Question 37

What was the aim and procedure of McGeogh and Mcdonald’s effects of similarity study ?

(Interference)

Answer 37

Aim - Is proactive and retroactive interference worse when memories are similar or different

Procedure -
Ps learnt list of 10 words until they could remember 100% accurately
Then given a new list of words to learn:
Group 1 – new list was synonyms of 1st list
Group 2 – new list was antonyms of 1st list
Group 3 – new list was unrelated to 1st list
Group 4 – new list was nonsense syllables
Group 5 – new list was 3 digit numbers
Group 6 – no new list, Ps rested

Question 38

What were the findings and conclusions made from McGeogh and Mcdonald’s effects of similarity study ?

(Interference)

Answer 38

Findings - Performance of remembering first list depended on the second list - most similar words had worst recall

Conclusion - interference is worse when memories are similar

Question 39

Lab study support = improve validity - artificial stimuli

Evaluation - Strength - Evidence is from lab studies ?

(Interference)

Answer 39

Point - There have been thousands of lab experiments on interference which show both types of interference are very likely to be common ways we forget information from LTM. Lab experiments control for extraneous variables which improves the validity

Counter - Uses artificial stimulus in these lab experiments. Which is different from what we try to remeber in everday life therefore studies lack mundane realism

Question 40

Baddeley and Hitch rugby players - Burke Skull magazine articles

Evaluation - Strength - Research support in more everyday settings ?

(Interference)

Answer 40

Point - Baddeley and Hitch ask rugby players to remeber names of the teams they played in the season. Results showed accurate recall did not depend on how long ago the matches took place but the number of games they played in the meantime (amount of interference)

Further - Burke and Skrull presented magazine articles to Ps who had to recall details of what they had seen. Found forgetting was worse when adverts were similar

Question 41

Needs specific circumstances = similarity - individual dif = Kane Eagle

Evaluation - Limitation - Incomplete explanation of forgetting ?

(Interference)

Answer 41

Point - There needs to be quite specific circumstances for interference to lead to forgetting because the two memories need to be quite similar

Further - there are individual differences in the effect of interference on forgetting. Kane and Eagle found individuals with working memory span are less susceptible to proactive interfernce

Question 42

What is retrieval failure ?

(Retrieval Failure)

Answer 42

Not being able to access memories that are their due to insufficient cues

Question 43

What encoding specificity principle ?

(Retrieval Failure)

Answer 43

Tulving et al - encoding specificity principle claims if a cue is going to help us recall information , it has to be present at:
Encoding - when we learnt it
Retrieval - when we recall it

Question 44

What are the 3 types of cues ?

(Retrieval Failure)

Answer 44

Meaningful cues - having a specific link to material

Context cues - environmental, based on where we was when we learnt the information

State cues - emotional, how we felt when the information was learnt

Question 45

What is context and state dependant forgetting ?

(Retrieval Failure)

Answer 45

Context dependant forgetting - if the external cues at learning and recall are different this may lead to retrieval failure

State depedant forgetting - forgetting becayse the state cues are different at encoding and retrieval

Question 46

Godden Baddeley deep sea diver - Abernathy teacher room study

Evaluation - Strength - Research support for context dependant forgetting ?

(Retrieval Failure)

Answer 46

Point - Godden and Baddeley’s deep sea diver study. Ps either learnt a list of words on water or land then recalled in same or different setting. Found that when environmental contexts of learning did not match, recall was 40% lower

Further - Abernathy using a combination of usual/different teacher and usual/different room. Found those tested by usual teacher in usual room performed better due to context dependant cues

Question 47

carter and Cassaday antihistamines recall sudy - Goodwin drunk or sober

Evaluation - Strength - Research support for state dependant forgetting ?

(Retrieval Failure)

Answer 47

Point - Carter and Cassaday tested Ps recall of words and passages when some learnt words on antihistamines and some when not then recall either on or not. Found when there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on memory test was worse

Further - Goodwin et al got Ps to learn and recall words either drunk or sober. Found when there was a match between states Ps performed better

Question 48

Smith and Vela meaningful material less effec context effects - real app

Evaluation - Limitation - Retrieval cues dont always work ?

(Retrieval Failure)

Answer 48

Point - Smith and Vela claim when learning more meaningful material, context effects are largely eliminated as complex information is less easily triggered by a single cue

Counter - Has real life application. Research about context dependant cues has helped develop cognitive intertview used in eyewitness testimony where witnesses return to the crime scene in their mind and imagine the environment

Question 49

What is the aim and procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s leading questions study ?

(Misleading Questions - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 49

Aim - to investigate the effects of leading questions on eye witness testimony

Procedure - Students were given a clip of the car crash and asked questions about it
The critical question was ‘‘how fast were the cars going when they hit eachother ‘’
The word hit was changed for different groups - collided, bumped, contacted, crashed

Question 49

What were the findings and conclusion of Loftus and Palmers leading questions study ?

(Misleading Questions - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 49

Findings:
Mean estimated speed for group with word contact was 31.8mph

Mean estimated speed for group with word smashed was 40.5mph

Conclusion - Lading questions caused a bias in eyewitness recall of the event

Question 50

What is the response bias explanation ?

(Misleading Questions - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 50

Wording of the question doesnt actually alter their memory, but just influences how they awnser

Question 51

What is the substitution explanation ?

(Misleading Questions - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 51

Loftus and Palmer found wording of leading questions actually changed the memories of participants

Question 52

What were the aims and procedure of Gobber et al’s post-event discussion study ?

(Misleading Questions - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 52

Aim - To investigate nthe impact of post event discusion of eye witness testimony

Procedure - Ps in pairs
Ps watched of the same crime but from different angles
Each P could see something the other couldn’t
Both Ps discussed what they had seen before individually recalling

Question 53

What were the findings and conclusions of Gobber et al’s post event discusiion study ?

(Misleading Questions - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 53

Findings - 71% of Ps mistakenly recorded aspects they had not seen in the video
In control group with no discussion there was 0% mistakenly recalled aspects

Conclusions - Witnesses go along with eachother either for social approval or because they believe them to be correct

Question 54

Why does post event discussion affect eye witness testimony ?

(Misleading Questions - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 54

Source monitoring theory - memories of the event are generally distorted. They can recall information from the event but not where it came from

Conformity theory - Eyewitness memories are not actually distorted. Eyewitness recall changes because they go along with co-witnesses. Either to win social approval or because they believe the other is correct

Question 55

Loftus claim police need be careful - Wells/Olsen mistaken identificatio

Evaluation - Strength - Real life application ?

(Misleading Questions - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 55

Point - Consequences of innacurate eye witness testimony can be very serious leading to false conviction and imprisonment of innocent people. Loftus said that police need to be careful about how they phrase their questions when interviewing witnesses

Further - Wells and Olsen found recent DNA exoneration cases confirm the warnings about eye witness testimony. Mistaken identification was the largest single factor contributing to the conviction of innocent people

Question 56

Loftus/Palmer video vs real life - Foster = real life improves accuracy

Evaluation - Limitation - Tasks are artificial ?

(Misleading Questions - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 56

Point - Lostus and Palmer’s study was based on film clips. This is very different from witnessing a real car accident because of the lack of stress

Further - Foster et al found that if Ps thought they was watching a real life robbery and their responses would influence a trial, their identification of the robber was more accurate

Question 57

150 American students less experienced drivers - Demand characteristics

Evaluation - Limitation - Tasks are artificial ?

(Misleading Questions - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 57

Point - Loftus and Palmers experiment used 150 American students, therefore it can be assumed they were less experienced drivers who would be less accurate in estimating speeds and findings cannot be generalised to older more experienced drivers

Further - Demand characteristics are caused because participants do not want to let the researcher down.This means they are more likely to awnser yes to yes/no questions when they dont know the awnser which many of these experiments contained

Question 58

What are the aims and procedure of Johnson and Scott’s anxietys affect on recall study ?

(Anxiety - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 58

Theory - Anxiety causes physiological arousal in the body, which can prevent us from paying attention to important cues

Aim - Investigate the effects of weapons on recall

Procedure - Ps believed they were taking part in a lab study and when seated Ps heard an argument in the next room
Low anxiety condition - man walked through a waiting area with pen covered in grease
High anxiety condition - Heard sound of breaking glass. Man walked out the room with knife covered in blood
Ps asked to identify man from a set of photos

Question 59

What are the findings and conclusion of Johnson and Scott’s anxietys affect on recall study ?

(Anxiety - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 59

Findings - 49% of Ps in low anxiety condition identified him correctly, 33% of Ps in high anxiety condition identified him correctly

Conclusion - Weapon focus and tunnel theory, whereby witnesses attention narrows and focuses on a weapon because its the source of anxiety

Question 60

What are the aims and procedures of Yuille and Cutshall’s positive effects of anxiety study ?

(Anxiety - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 60

Theory - Fight or flight response is triggered through stress, this increases alertness and improves memory as we are more aware of our cues

Aims - to inestigate the affect of anxiety on recall and real life robbery

Procedure - 13 witnesses to a reallife armed robbery
Witnesses interviewed 4-5 months later, interviews compared with original police testimony
Witnesses also asked to rate how stressed they were at the time of the incident

Question 61

What are the findings and conclusion of Yuille and Cutshall’s positive effects of anxiety study ?

(Anxiety - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 61

Findings - witnesses were very accurate in their accounts with little change since their first interview. Ps who reported highest levels of stress were the most accurate

Conclusion - Anxiety has a posititve effect on recall

Question 62

What did Yurke and Dodson find ?

(Anxiety - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 62

relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted U

Question 63

Pickel claim Johnson/Scott experiment = surprise - External validity

Evaluation - Limitation - Contradictory research - weapon focus ?

(Anxiety - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 63

Point - Pickel claims Johnson and Scott’s experiment may test surprise rather than anxiety. Experiment showing video of a hairdressing salon, thief enters with different items:
Scissors, hand-gun, wallet and raw chicken. Recall was worse with high surprise items rather than high threat

Counter - External validity - Ps watching videos - may not have taken the experiment seriously as may not have been as emotionally aroused as real life

Question 64

Post-event discussion responsible for accuracy - natural experiments

Evaluation - Limitation - Lack of control in natural experiments ?

(Anxiety - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 64

Point - Real-life witnesses usually interviewed sometime after the event in the mean time post-event discussion, reading or seeing other accounts in the media may occur. These extraneous variables may be responsible for the accuracy of the recall

I&D and Counter - There are less ethical issues in natural experiments, creating anxiety on purpose could potentially be unethical as it may subject people to psychological harm. Natural experiments that take advantage of real life events are beneficial

Question 65

Christiansen/Hubinette witnesses bank robbery - Halford/Milne violence

Evaluation - Strengh - research support for anxiety having a good effect on recall ?

(Anxiety - Eye Witness Testimony)

Answer 65

Point - Christiansen and Hubinette questioned 58 real witnesses to bank robberies in Sweden, witnesses either victims or bystanders. Witnesses showed generally good memories and those most anxious had the best recall

Further - Halford and Milne found victims of violent crimes were more accurate in their recall of crime scene information than victims of non-violent crimes

Question 66

How are standard police interviews criticised by Fisher and Geiselman ?

(Cognitive Interview)

Answer 66

Discussions during interviews may contaminate witness memories
Practices encourage witholdal of information
Techniques disrupt the natural process os searching through memory

Question 67

What are the 4 techniques of the cognitive interview ?

(Cognitive Interview)

Answer 67

1. Report everything
2. Reinstate the context
3. Reverse the order
4. Change perspective

Question 68

How does the report everything stage work ?

(Cognitive Interview)

Answer 68

Witnesses encourage to report everything they see, even if information may seem irrelevant

This is used to trigger other memories

Question 69

How does the reinstate the context stage work ?

(Cognitive Interview)

Answer 69

Witnesses return to the crime scene in ‘‘their mind’’ and imagine the environment

reimagining the environment and emotions may trigger memories

Question 70

How does the reverse the order stage work ?

(Cognitive Interview)

Answer 70

Events must be recalled in a different order to the original sequence - End to beggining

Prevents people reporting their expectations of how event occureds
Prevents dishonesty

Question 71

How does the change the perspective stage work ?

(Cognitive Interview)

Answer 71

Witnesses encouraged to recall incident from other people’s perspectives

disrupts the expectations based on pre-exisitng schemas

Question 72

What is the enhanced cognitive interview ?

(Cognitive Interview)

Answer 72

Created by Fisher et al
Added focus to the social dynamics of the sitution

such as:
When to make eye contact
Techniques to reduce witness anxiety
Minimising distractions
Getting witnesses to talk slowly
Asking open ended questions

Question 73

Kohnken et al meta analysis - increase in amount of incorrect info

Evaluation - Strength - Research support for the effectivness of cognitive interview ?

(Cognitive Interview)

Answer 73

Point - Kohnken et al’s meta analysis found a 34% increase in the amount of correct information given when using the cognitive interview

Counter - While it enhanced the quantity of information this could be at the cost of quality. Kohnken et al found an increase in the amount of incorrect information

Question 74

Kebbell/Wagstaff uses too much time - requires specialist training

Evaluation - Limitation - Widespread use is impractical ?

(Cognitive Interview)

Answer 74

Point - Kebbell and Wagstaff found police officers report that the technique requires more time than usually available and police officers prefer to use deliberate strategies to limit witness reports

Further - Kebbell and Wagstaff claim the cognitive interview requires specialist training and many forces have only been able to provide a few hours

Question 75

Mello/Fisher most useful for elderly - uses nomothetic approach

Evaluation - Limitation - Individual differences in effectiveness ?

(Cognitive Interview)

Answer 75

Point - Mello and Fisher found the cognitive interview is most useful when interviewing the elderly. Negative stereotypes of older peoples memories makes them cautious about what they report, but the cognitive interview may overcome this

I&D - The explanation of the benefits of the cognitive approach generally takes a nomothetic approach in attempting to make general laws of human behaviour