Social development in infancy Flashcards
developing recognition of the mother
Mother’s voice in the womb
a mother’s voice can be heard clearly inside the womb
developing recognition of the mother
when does the fetal heartrate respond to their mother’s voice?
32 weeks
developing recognition of the mother
recognition of the mother’s face
babies of 7 hours preffered to look at their mother’s than of a stranger with same colour hair even when image was colour reversed
imitation - Meltzoff & Moore
imitations of faces
babies imitate facial expressions from birth
developing interactions with the mother (and father)
what two main things do babies do when interacting with parents?
smiling and babbling
developing interaction with the mother (and father)
smiling
- newborn’s reflex smile
- by 6 weeks babies smile to mother’s face and voice
- by 3 months the babies smiles are synchronised with the mother’s
developing interaction with the mother (and father)
babbling
- from 2 months babies coo and laugh when people are talking to them or smiling
joint attention
when does joint attention emerge
- emerges between 6 and 12 months
- typically established by 9 months
joint attention
Joint attention (Flom et al. 2004)
- 3 conditions (look & point; look, point, & verbalise) with 9 month olds
- better than chance performance with look & point
- when object is in 2nd visual field, better than chance performance when look, point & verbalise
Joint attention (Flom et al 2004.) findings
- explored if parent’s small or large head turns mattered
only mattered if looking in front of the infant - infants followed larger turns more than smaller turns
in particular when outside visual field
Joint attention - children’s pointing
pointing with full hand is different than pointing with index finger
joint attention - children’s pointing
when does pointing for babies have a purpose?
- 12 months
- 10-12 month olds - pointing is to try and get objects that are out of reach
- around 2 years of age infants will point then look at parent, then look back at object they are pointing to
social referencing
when does social referencing occur?
- it occurs between 9 and 10 months of age
social referencing
what do babies do when confronted with an uncomfortable situation?
infants may look to their caregivers for cues to how to respond
parents need to note:
* changes in expression
* the nature and intensity of expression
* how this reflects internal mental state
* where attention is directed (gaze following)
do infants recognise/understand different emotional expressions?
recognitions of emotion expressions: 7 months
- they can distinguish between happy & surprised expressions
- their brains can react differently to happy & fearful expressions
do infants recognise/understand different emotional expressions?
recognition of emotion expression: 8 months
infants can distinguish happy from angry faces
do infants recognise/understand different emotional expressions?
understanding of emotion expression: visual cliff experiment
depth perception in babies
importance of attachment
- researchers have related attachment during infancy with later childhood patterns of ego resilience, affect regulation and problem solving in stressful situations
importance of attachment
what have insecure romantic attachment styles in adulthood been related to:
lonliness, anxiety, depression, physical symptoms, low self esteem
attachment
what is the attachment theory?
attempts to explain the origins of social and emotional behaviour through our attachment to others
Lewis et al., 2000
what are the 4 attachment theories?
- Freudian psychoanalytic theory
- Learning theory
- Cognitive development theory
- Ethological theory
attachment theories
freudian psychological theory
attachment to caregiver forms because they provide the oral gratification
attachment theories
learning theory
attachment to caregiver forms because they are the second reinforcer
attachment theories
Cognitive development theory
attachment occurs after the infant is able to differentiate between the self and others, and have object permanence
attachment theories
ethological theory
attachment forms due to instinctual responses to ensure its protection and survival
key ideas in John Bowlby’s threory
who influenced Bowlby’s theory?
he was influenced by Harlow’s (1971) research on rhesus moneky’s reared apart from their mother
Key ideas in John Bowlby’s theory
what did Bowlby try to explain?
he aimed to explain the formation of the earliest attachment bonds between infant and mother using ethological principles reformulated in human terms
* the mother provides a secure base from which the developing infant can explore the world and return safely
key ideas in John Bowlby’s theory: attachment and loss
Bowlby’s theory on attachment and loss
- needs both strong relationship and adequate physical care
- biological need for a baby to form a major and significant attachment to one individual
- the attachment figure is constructed from the child’s past experiences with that person
Harlow’s research on maternal deprivation in monkeys
what did the baby rhesus monkey reared alone given the choice of:
2 things
- a cloth covered support that did not dispense food
- a wire support that dispensed milk
attachment patterns
what does sercure attachment relationships lead to for children?
it leads the child into a range of psychologically healthy developmental pathways and independence
attachment patterns
what does insecure patterns of attachment do in children?
it contributes to later abnormal behaviour
Bowlby’s methodology
what did Bowlby’s interest in the importance of attachment come from?
working in a school for maladjusted children
* he interviewed 44 adolescents who had been convicted for thieving about their childhood
developments of Bowlby’s view: nature of attachment
what is monotropy
when attachment is usually only to one person
development of Bowlby’s view: nature of attachment
what is a father’s role according to Bowlby?
they provided love and companionship to support the mother emotionally
Schaffer & Emerson 1964
what is attachment according to Schaffer and Emerson?
attachment is often to more than one figure and that poor attachment to one person can be offset by strong attachment to another
the strange situation Ainsworth 1969
outline the strange situation
7 steps
- mother and infant enter observation room
infant play observed - stranger enters and talks to mother then leaves
infant reaction to stranger observed - mother leaves
infant reaction observed - mother returns
infant reaction observed - mother leaves
infant reaction observed - stranger enters
infant reaction to stranger observed - mother returns
infant reaction observed
the strange situation Ainsworth 1969
secure attachment
4 observations
- plays happily but keeps close eye on mother
- positive reaction to stranger
- cries when mother leaves room
- when mother returns baby is rapidly comforted
the strange situation Ainsworth 1969
insecure-avoidant attachment
4 observations
- indifferent to mother
- often does not cry when mother leaves room
- stranger can provide comfort if baby cries
- when mother returns baby may turn or look away
the strange situation Ainsworth 1969
insecure-disorganised attachment
3 observations
- lacks organised ability to deal with stress
- when mother returns, child may appear disorganised and confused by caregiver’s return
- may act dazed at mothers return, or cry loudly while trying to get on mother’s knee
maintaining attachment style
maintaining attachment style: formation of attachment in infancy does not have inevitably irreversible consequences
lewis et al. 2000 found that attachment at 1 year was not related to attachment style at 18 years
maintaining attachment style: defining features can change for attachment
importance may shiift from proximity to attachment figure to availability figure
maintaining attachment style: important attachments are formed throughout life
infancy through middle childhood most important attachments tend to be with caregivers
maintaining attachment style: individual differences
individual differences in temperament and sociability affect attachment
influences on attachment quality
what are the two influences on attachment quality?
caregiver & child factors
caregiver factors:
* depression
* previous experience
* day care arrangements
child factors:
* child temperament
attachment and postnatal depression
contradictory evidence
- more common in low SES groups
- could be due to intergenerational history of depression/attachment
attachment and postnatal depression
what did McMahon et al. discover when he explored maternal depression/attachment and child attachment
- mothers who suffer from postnatal depression were more likely to have insecure attachment styles themselves
- children whose mothers suffer from chronic postnatal depression were more likely to have insecure attachment styles
attachment history
adult attachment interview (Main, 1991)
brief explanation and 3 categories
- asks about childhood experiences and adult perspective on them
- Three categories: 1) autonomous; 2) dismissing; 3) preoccupied
practical implications: childcare & attachment
Belsky & Rovine: children in day care results
- Full time DC - 47% insecure
- high-part DC - 35% insecure
- low-part DC - 21% insecure
- mother-care - 25% insecure
practical implications: full-time childcare and attachment
Findings from the full-time DC group
mothers with insecure infants:
* interpersonal sensitivity and empathy, and marital satisfaction
* must look at motivation for working
mothers with secure infants:
* alternative care arrangements
practical implications: full-time childcare & attachment
Findings from the full-time DC group: consequences
in examining security with both parents, infants in full-time day care, it was found that:
* 36% of girls were insecurely attached to both
* 29% of boys were securely attached to both
Clarke-stweart 1989 pointed out that this is not such a big difference
practical implications: full-time childcare attachment & implications
Why might we see so much insecurity for infants in day care for more than 20 hours a week?
- strange situation not as stressful
- mothers who work (& infants) differ in many ways from those who do not
- NOTE: other measures of insecurity do not show these infants as being any different (e.g., self-confidence and emotional adjustment)
practical implications: full-time childcare & alternative explanations
what did Applebaum et al., 1997 find a relationship between?
they found relationships with maternal sensitivity and responsiveness as well as interactions with quality of childcare
* Low maternal sensitivity and responsiveness when combined with low quality of child care = less secure infants at 15 months.
practical implications: full-time childcare & alternative explanations
what is the differential susceptibility hypothesis
when children vary in whether they are affected by their rearing experiences (e.g., depending on their temperament)
Belsky 1997
practical implications: full-time childcare & alternative explanations
how did DeSchipper et al., dismiss the differential susceptibility hypothesis?
he found no evidence to support the differential susceptibility hypothesis, using Attachment Q-sort measure
practical implications: full-time childcare & alternative explanations
what did DeSchipper et al., find using the Attachment Q-sort measure
he found that:
* being a girl was a positive predictor of positive attachment relationships, as was having more frequent positive caregiving experiences
* relationships did not differ depending on irritability
practical implications: full-time childcare & alternative explanations
what did Pluess and Belsky (2009) find about predicting future behaviour?
he found that infant temperament and quality of childcare result in different childhood outcomes
problems in measuring attachment: infancy
the “strange situation”
- attachment is a continuum and classification into discrete categories is misleading
- only assesses attachment behaviour in one (“strange”) situation
- does not take cultural practice into account
- does not identify all children with abnormal social relationships (e.g., autistic children)
