social and cultural diversity

Question 1

Family Life-cycle stages
While the number of single-parent families and stepfamilies in this society continually increases, most people still experience a particular, distinct set of roles as they become adults and have children. These are known as family life-cycle stages

Answer 1

(a) Young adulthood
(b) Couples with no children
(c) Couples with children
(d) Family with adolescent children
(e) Launching phase
(f) Families in later life

Question 2

Daniel Levinson

Levinson suggests four stages:

Answer 2

(a) The Early Adult Transition (ages 17-22). A young man is now on the boundary between pre-adulthood and early adulthood.
(b) Age 30 Transition (ends at 33). This stage frequently begins with a vague uneasiness, a feeling that something is missing or wrong in one’s life and that some change is needed if the future is to be worthwhile.
(c) The Mid-life Transition (ages 40-45). This transition is a bridge between early adulthood and middle adulthood.
(d) Later Adulthood
Levinson wrote Seasons of a Man’s Life. His suggestion of a mid-life crisis for men ages 40-45 was later discredited by additional research.

Question 3

Social Exchange Theory

Answer 3

a. Social exchange theorists borrow ideas from economics. They argue that all interaction is an “exchange of goods, material and non-material,” in which individuals try to maximize their profit by reaping as many rewards as possible while incurring the fewest possible costs.
b. An example is that of a student missing class and borrowing the notes of another student. Both students will assess the costs and rewards and base their decision
on the maximum profit they can attain with as little cost as possible. It is costly in terms of embarrassment and discomfort to ask another for notes but rewarding
to have the material for an exam.

Question 4

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Answer 4

a. Dissonance refers to a negative arousal brought about by one’s inconsistent thoughts or actions or both.
b. This translates to the following assumptions:
i. If one has opposing thoughts or behaviors, or both, this brings about an aversive state of tension, akin to a drive state like hunger or thirst.
ii. This tension motivates the individual to seek relief by eliminating the tension by changing
 either a thought or attitude to make it consonant with the opposing thought or behavior, or
 one’s behavior, to make it consonant with the opposing behavior or thought.
iii. Because it is often much easier to change one’s thoughts rather than one’s behaviors, these are typically the elements that get modified by the person
in dissonance reduction.

Question 5

Teen Pregnancy

Answer 5

1. Physical maturation and sexual awareness are occurring at an earlier and earlier age.
2. Our country is experiencing one million teen pregnancies a year.
3. 94 percent of unmarried teen mothers keep their babies.
4. 50 percent of unmarried teen mothers will become pregnant again within three years.
5. 1 in 10-20 teenage boys will father a premarital pregnancy.
6. Pregnant teens marry only 10 percent of the time.
7. The divorce rate for parents younger than 18 years of age is 3 times greater than for those who have their first child after 20 years of age.
8. The divorce rate among teens within the first five years of marriage is 60 percent.
9. Infants born to adolescent mothers are more likely to have a low birth weight and a
   higher chance of mortality.
10. Teenage mothers often drop out of school, fail to gain employment, become dependent on welfare, and lack parenting skills.

Question 6

Grief and Loss

Answer 6

1. Grief is the normal intense emotional state associated with the loss of someone (or something) with whom (or which) one has had a deep emotional bond.
2. Loss refers to many kinds of deprivation.
3. Kubler-Ross (1969) identifies five common stages in the grieving process

 denial
 anger
 bargaining
 depression
 acceptance

Question 7

Disabilities

Answer 7

The Education for All Handicapped Children Act; Public Law 94.142 (1975); abbreviated as PL94.142, decreed that educational and counseling services be made available for handicapped children. Also know IDEA – Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.

Question 8

Conflict
Four Types of Conflict
Psychologists identify four basic types of conflict. They are:

Answer 8

a. Approach-Approach Conflict
In this conflict, an individual must choose between two attractive stimuli or circumstances. It is the conflict that is the least stressful, although in situations where one needs to make important decisions (e.g. deciding between two good career opportunities), it can result in some increased stress. It typically results from limitations on one’s time, space, energy, and personal and financial resources.
b. Approach-Avoidance Conflict
In this conflict, a person must make a decision that involves a single stimulus or circumstance in which positive and negative characteristics are present.
(Example: Wanting to eat, but not wanting to gain weight.)
c. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
In this conflict, the individual must choose between two unattractive or undesirable stimuli or circumstances. (Example: Washing a sink-full of dishes or vacuuming the house. Preparing income taxes or studying for the State’s
counselor exam.)
d. Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict
In this situation, the individual experiences the rise of conflict from having to choose between two or more goals. Each goal has both positive and negative
aspects. (Example: One’s attraction to a larger newer house but higher payments and a smaller older house but smaller payments.)

Question 9

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theorists believe aggression is learned.

Answer 9

Albert Bandura
 Albert Bandura’s social learning theory of aggression has been most influential.
 Bandura suggests that much of human development is based on learning by observing how other people behave.

Question 10

The Frustration-Aggression Theory by Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, and Sears (1939) stated that:

Answer 10

 all acts of aggression are the result of previous frustration;
 all frustration leads to aggression. But, some frustrations do not yield aggression, and some aggression is not the result of a prior frustration.

Question 11

Spirituality and Religions

Answer 11

1. Spirituality
   Spirituality involves personal beliefs, such as those about an ultimate human condition or set of values toward which we strive, a supreme being, or a unity with nature and the universe.
2. Religions
   Religions are organized belief systems. They include shared beliefs and values regarding God and involvement in a religious community

Question 12

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Religiosity
Griffith and Rotter (1999) suggest that it is vital that a counselor assess the religiosity of a client to determine whether it is intrinsic or extrinsic.

Answer 12

a. Intrinsic religiosity is religious belief that relates to all of life and is unprejudiced, tolerant, mature, integrative, unifying, and meaning-endowing. This type of religiosity can enhance the spiritual well-being of an individual.
b. Extrinsic religiosity is said to be compartmentalized, prejudiced, exclusionary, immature, utilitarian, and self-serving. They state that extrinsic religiosity is used
as a defense mechanism as opposed to intrinsic religiosity which encourages growth and wellness.

Question 13

Leading Causes of Death in the U.S.

Answer 13

A. Adults
(KNOW IN THIS ORDER)
1. Heart Disease
2. Cancer
3. Strokes
B. Adolescents
(KNOW IN THIS ORDER)
1. Accidents (unintentional injuries) (usually Alcohol related)
2. Homicide
3. Suicide
C. Infants
(KNOW IN THIS ORDER)
1. Congenital and chromosomal abnormalities
2. Disorders related to short gestation and low birthrate
3. SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome)

Question 14

Durkheim
Durkheim explains the sociological approach to suicide as a reaction to societal
pressures and influences.

Answer 14

Durkheim identified three types of suicide: ● egoistic
 anomic
 altruistic
 altruistic

Question 15

Types of Households

Answer 15

a. Traditional nuclear family – Includes only the wife, the husband, and their own or adopted children.
b. Single-parent family – Includes either a single, widowed, or divorced father or mother and his or her own children.
c. Blended family – Results from the marriage of a divorced man and/or a divorced woman and includes his and/or her children.
d. Extended family – Includes other relatives or in-laws who share the household
with the nuclear family.
e. Augmented family – Includes non-relatives, such as boarders, friends, or other long-term guests, who share the household with the family and have some influence on family life.
f. Shared household – Includes two or more relatives or non-related persons of the same or opposite sex living together.

Question 16

Homosexual Lifestyles

Answer 16

Homosexual couples do not have the same supports, institutionalized social sanctions, and acceptability as do heterosexual couples. There is an absence
of religious or legal bonds and rituals for gay couples.

There are a complex number of systems involved: a) The homosexual family system created by the couple; b) The family of origin of each family member; c) The homosexual community within which the family is embedded; and d) the mainstream community in which the family must
function.

Question 17

Etic Approach

Answer 17

a. Culture is studied and understood in terms of how it differs from or is similar to other cultures on shared dimensions (e.g. family function, the single universal
definition of mental health, etc).
b. Culture is examined from an external viewpoint; cultural differences are seen as surface variations of underlying structures shared by all.
c. A counselor who is “etic” would make a study of such things as a group’s speech patterns, economic or political structure, and social/religious makeup, so as to
more effectively help them.
d. Freud and Ellis are Etics with their concepts postulated to apply to everyone.

Question 18

Emic Approach

Answer 18

a. Culture is studied from within the system. Comparisons are made to internal structures and not to external systems or theories. Culture is seen as a phenomenon to be understood from a position within the system.
b. An “emic” counselor would become directly immersed in the culture by living within it and by believing that mental health is “relative”; what is “crazy” in one
society is “sane” in another.
c. The emic view emphasizes individual differences.

Question 19

Autoplastic approach

Answer 19

Autoplastic changes are changes in oneself; therefore, clients are encouraged to change themselves to accommodate the external circumstances.

Question 20

Alloplastic approach

Answer 20

Alloplastic changes are changes in the external environment; therefore, a client’s outside world is manipulated to effect change.

Question 21

Brown vs. the Kansas Board of Education

Answer 21

Only after the 1954 Supreme Court decision of Brown vs. the Kansas Board of Education and the Civil Rights movement in the 1960s did professional members
begin to recognize and reference the need to attend to various cultural groups. The urgent question was whether counseling should deal exclusively with normal
development needs or include concerns of a broader psychological nature. Special groups began to demand that counseling become relevant to their
particular needs.

Question 22

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

Answer 22

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (PL 88-352) prohibited discrimination based on gender, race, religion, or national origin.

Question 23

Therapeutic surrender

Answer 23

means the client psychologically surrenders himself or
herself to a counselor from a different culture and becomes open with feelings and thoughts. Factors helpful in promoting therapeutic surrender are rapport, trust,
listening, conquering client resistance, and self-disclosure.

Question 24

Cultural context

Answer 24

Cultural context must impact a multicultural counselor’s diagnosis. Cultural relativism has an effect on diagnosis by influencing the expectations of the counselor. A counselor most likely expects more rigid standards of social
conformity from someone of his/her own culture.

Question 25

American Ethnic Minorities

The main ethnic minority groups in the U.S. include:

Answer 25

1. American Indian or Alaska Native
2. Black or African Americans
3. Hispanic Americans
4. Asian Americans

Question 26

American Indian or Alaska Native

Answer 26

 While American Indians are generally viewed as being all one ethnic group, the truth is that there are many ethnically distinct tribes.
 The 2000 Census reported 2.4 million American Indians or Alaska Natives living in the United States.
 Native Americans emphasize harmony with the environment, have a deep respect for natural resources, and have an ability to be in nature rather than filling time with activity or filling space with possessions, as ends in
themselves.
 The following statement sums up the Native American philosophy: “We honor a man for what he has done for the people rather than for what he has done for himself.”
 A sense of eye contact may indicate lack of respect.
 Native Americans experience a high rate of alcoholism.
 The suicide rate is high, peaking in the 20s or early 30s.

Question 27

Black or African Americans

Answer 27

 A high suicide rate is present among black male adults along with depression.
 Black infant mortality rates are considerably higher than for Whites.
 Feelings of powerlessness can be perpetuated by the system.
 Some research indicates a growing Black middle-class moving away from traditional professions (teaching, ministry) and into business, the sciences, and
technology.
 Blacks experience a high rate of hypertension.
 Blacks experience a high rate of sickle-cell anemia.

Question 28

Hispanic Americans

Answer 28

 Hispanic refers to U.S. residents whose ethnic roots are in Mexico, Central
America, South America, Puerto Rico, and Cuba.
 Thirty-two million eight-hundred thousand Hispanics make up 12 percent of the U.S. population (89.4% live in the West and the South) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000).
 The Hispanic population is the largest U.S. minority group

Machismo and marianismo are constructs that tend to organize gender roles in their culture

Question 29

Asian Americans

Answer 29

 According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the Asian-American population of the U.S. is composed of the following peoples: Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Asian Indian, Korean, Vietnamese, Hawaiian, Samoan, Guamanian, Pakistani, Indonesian, and Fiji Islanders.
 Many Asians consider eye-to-eye contact shameful. This is especially true for women who may believe that only women with low morals make direct eye contact.
 Physical and verbal expressions of love are uncommon

Question 30

Discrimination and Stereotyping

Answer 30

The common thread running through the literature on minority groups is the problemsthey encounter due to discrimination, stereotyping, and prejudice. The Minority
Identity Development (MID) model was developed by Atkinson, Morten, and Sue
(1989) to help in revealing the possible psychological development patterns of minority
group members.