Human Development Flashcards
Life-Cycle, Life-Span Approach
While theories of human growth and development have offered a variety of conceptual models for explaining the changes humans experience, the life-cycle approach (Santrock, 1999; Baltes, 1987) is currently the most widely used. The eight periods of life-span development are delineated in this order: 1. Prenatal 2. Infancy 3. Early childhood 4. Middle and late childhood 5. Adolescence 6. Early adulthood 7. Middle adulthood 8. Late adulthood
Nature vs Nurture Controversy
No textbook on human growth and development is complete without at least a paragraph on the
nature vs. nurture argument regarding how and why development takes place.
Nature, of course, refers to the hereditary nature of development.
Nurture refers to the effect of the child’s environment on that development.
While some theorists have argued for one or the other’s influence, today’s theorists recognize that both factors powerfully impact development.
Psychoanalytic Theories
Sigmund Freud
Freud’s concept of the unconcious
Freud saw personality as having a conscious mind, a preconscious mind, and an unconscious mind.
1. Conscious mind – Known impulses, events, memories; present knowledge.
2. Preconscious mind – Easily recalled but not currently known memories and
drives.
3. Unconscious mind – Emotions, thoughts, memories, drives etc. that are influencing behavior without current awareness; hidden or forgotten experiences.
Freud’s concept of the unconscious, a radically new idea at the time, is thought by many to be one of his greatest contributions to psychological thought. Critics,
however, emphasize that the unconscious cannot be verified scientifically.
Freud’s
Topographical
Freud’s notion of the unconscious, preconscious, and conscious mind is called a topographical concept. Just as a topographer is a map drawer, a Freudian analyst maps
the mind as if it looked like an iceberg.
Freud’s System of Personality
- The id
The id is present at birth and represents a biological, instinctual component that cannot bear tension. The id functions under the pleasure principle and, therefore,
demands immediate gratification, the avoidance or diminishing of pain, and the securing of pleasure. The id is not rational or logical and has no concept of time.
The id is part of the unconscious mind. - The ego
The ego develops as the psychological component that wields power over the id. The ego functions under the reality principle and, therefore, logically and
realistically plans appropriate ways to fulfill needs. The ego is pressed by the id to give in to pleasure and gratification in spite of the consequences. The ego operates primarily in the conscious and preconscious minds. - The superego
The superego represents the social component, made up of the conscience and ego ideals. It is from the superego that a person pursues perfection. Guilty feelings
result from a violation of the standards and morals set by the superego.
Freud’s Cathexis
Cathexis is the process by which sources of energy are tied to thoughts, actions, objects, or people.
Freud’s Fixation
is the resistance of a person to move to the next stage because the cathexis is too intense. In other words, if a person experiences either too much pain (trauma) or too much pleasure at any given stage, he/she may resist letting go of that stage. Cognitive and physical development occurs, but emotional
development is “stuck.” Fixation during a stage leads to certain problems as adults.
Each of Freud’s stages is emblematic of certain developmental issues and is named for the corresponding physical (bodily) source of pleasure (psychosexual stage):
Oral: 0 - 2 years Pleasure is derived from nursing and sucking. Infants will put everything into their mouths.
Anal: 2 - 3 years The first experience of “imposed control” is found in the form of toilet training. Gratification is derived from withholding or expelling feces.
Phallic: 3 - 6 years Pleasure is derived from fondling genitals. Children observe the differences between males and females and direct their awakening sexual impulses toward the parent of the opposite sex:
Oedipus Complex – boy desires sexual relations with his mother.
Electra Complex – girl desires sexual relations with her father.
In order to become an ally of:
his father, the boy will adopt traditional male roles.
her mother, the girl will adopt traditional female roles.
The Oedipus Complex is Freud’s most controversial concept.
Freud theorized that the identification of the child with the same-sex parent leads to internalization of authoritarian/parental values which leads to the
emergence of the super-ego or conscious.
Latency: 6 - puberty The child becomes less concerned with his/her body and turns his/her
attention to the skills needed for coping with the environment. This is the only stage not primarily psychosexual in nature.
Genital: puberty The adolescent begins to turn his/her interests towards others and to love in
a more mature way.
Freud’s Ego Defense Mechanisms
Anxiety
Anxiety is the result of conflict among the id, the ego, and the superego. Ego defense mechanisms are employed as unconscious coping mechanisms when the superego cannot control anxiety by rational and direct methods (Corey, 1986). Ego defense mechanisms reduce anxiety by denying or distorting reality. Freudians believe that repression is the most important of the ego defense mechanisms.
Freud
Wish Fulfillment
Freud believed that a dream can be a wish fulfillment. These wishes or desires can either be conscious or unconscious.
A slip-of-the-tongue can also signify such a wish or desire.
Freud’s theory is a Maturation Theory
Freud’s developmental theory could be classified as a maturation theory (as is Erikson’s) because Freud believed that the developmental order or the unfolding of behavior is programmed by heredity.
Certain stimuli must be present in the environment, however, for the next behavior to emerge.
Additionally, a necessary predetermined level of neural development must be present for the next behavior to emer
Carl Jung
Analytical Psychology
Jung’s theory, analytical psychology, grew out of Jung’s disagreement with Freud that neuroses originated in the libido (sexual origin). Jung instead emphasized a general psychic energy (Hunt, 1993).
Individuation • Personal Growth • Self-actualization
Carl Jung
Also, Jung believed that individuals by instinct are driven toward individuation, that agreement or harmony between the conscious and unconscious parts of their
personality.
This wholeness or personal growth is realized as the individual becomes more and more aware of his/her unconscious side.
This progress toward self-actualization can be a life-long process.
Logos vs. Eros Principle
Jung said that: men operate on logic or the logos principle;
women operate on intuition or the eros principle.
Archetypes
Carl Jung
Jung’s review of literature led him to believe that certain archetypes have appeared in religious writings, dreams, myths, and fables since the dawn of recorded history. These archetypes are the common, collective unconscious which is passed on from generation
to generation.
Some common archetypes are:
Anima – the female characteristics of the personality
Animus – the male characteristics of the personality
Shadow – the unconscious opposite of a person’s conscious expression
The Persona – the mask worn or the role presented to hide one’s true self
Major Contributions to the Field of Psychology
Carl Jung
Jung is credited with the word-association technique and the introversion-extroversion concept.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, a leading personality inventory using bipolar scales, is based on Jung’s work.
Alfred Alder
Individual Psychology
holistic view of development, individual psychology, asserts that what an individual is born with or into (heredity and environment) is not the determining factor in one’s development. Rather, the endeavoring to reach individual goals determines an individual’s lifestyle and behavior. Therefore, one is always becoming, trying to achieve one’s self-ideal. Feelings of inferiority come from one’s self not
Alfred Alder
Birth order makes a difference. The birth of each child impacts the family system thereby influencing the personality development of each child; in effect, each child
is born into a different family environment.
Oldest – Usually high achievers, dependable, hard working, “parent pleasing,” conforming, well-behaved, may have an underlying insecurity from being displaced by the second child.
Second – Usually outgoing, less constrained by rules, seems to be in a race to surpass the older sibling, and often excels at what the first born does not.
Middle – Become concerned with perceived unfairness as he or she feels squeezed out, can become a problem child, thrive in family politics and negotiations, and may become manipulative.
Youngest – Usually adept at pleasing or entertaining the family, often high achievers, tend to go their own way into areas of development no other family member has even considered, run the risk of being spoiled.
Only – Usually a high achiever like an oldest child, deals well with adults, may be slow in developing social skills, may be pampered or spoiled. These characteristics also apply to children born seven or more years apart from
siblings.
Harry Stack Sullivan was the most influential theorist to discuss the importance of friendships.
A person experiences interpersonal relationships and thus experiences ego formation through these three modes of experience:
1. Protaxic – Infancy; the infant has no concept of time and place.
2. Parataxic – Early childhood; the child accepts what is without questioning or
evaluating and then reacts on an unrealistic basis.
3. Syntaxic – Later childhood; the child is able to evaluate his/her own thoughts and feelings against those of others and learns about relationship patterns in society.
Sullivan’s Six Stages of Development:
- Infancy – Being nursed provides the initial social experience (“good mother” feeds; “bad mother” withholds).
- Childhood – Societies’ expectations of behavior are learned; language is acquired.
- Juvenile – Entering school moves the child out of the family; individual goals begin to develop.
- Preadolescence – Close same-sex friendships develop;
social rules with reciprocal concepts develop. - Early Adolescence – Heterosexual interests are sparked by puberty.
- Late Adolescence – Social awareness develops; establishing a family and contributing to the community become the task at hand.
Karen Horney
Horney believed as Freud did in the importance of powerful unconscious intrapsychic conflicts. Yet, she dismissed the construct of libido and the assumption
that people are motivated by an inborn sense of self-destruction.
Neurosis is the outworking of what Horney called “basic anxiety.”
Erik Erickson
Ego Identity
is the balance of what “one feels one is and what others take one to be” (Erikson, 1963). The ego is not content to merely absorb and incorporate (assimilate) parental qualities; the ego works toward becoming an autonomous,
unique self.
Erik Erickson
Identity Crisis
Erikson coined the term “identity crisis,” meaning that an adolescent is not able to integrate all of his or her previous roles into a single self-concept.
Some of these roles are of an experimental nature as adolescents attempt to find out who they really are.
Conformity with peers is at issue.
Erik Erickson
Epigenetic
Erikson’s theory is based on the epigenetic principle, meaning that each strength has its own period of particular importance.
As the individual progresses through the development of these strengths, it is up to the individual to make something of his or her life.
Ego identity requires more than simply mirroring or reflecting the values of someone he or she admires.
Erik Erickson
Maturation Theory
Erikson’s developmental theory could be classified as a maturation theory (as is Freud’s) because Erikson believed that the developmental order or unfolding of behavior is programmed by heredity.
Erik Erickson
Psycho-Social Stages
Developmental Stage Psycho-social Crisis
1. Early infancy
(Birth - 1 year)———–Basic trust vs. mistrust
2. Later infancy
(1 - 2 years)———–Autonomy vs. shame & doubt
3. Early childhood
(3 - 5 years)—————–Initiative vs. guilt
4. Middle childhood
(6 - 11 years)——————Industry vs. inferiority
5. Adolescence
(12 - 20 years)—————Identity vs. role confusion
6. Early adulthood
(20 - 35 years)——————-Intimacy vs. isolation
Sharing one’s life with others vs.
I’m the only one I can depend on
7. Middle adulthood
(35 - 65 years)——————-Generativity vs. stagnation
The productive ability to create a career,
family, leisure time, etc. vs. self-absorption
8. Late adulthood
(65+ years)—————-Integrity vs. despair
Life has been worthwhile vs. life’s precious
opportunities have been wasted.
Object Relations Theory
The term object was used by Freud to mean that which satisfies a need or that which is the target of one’s feelings or drives. It is used synonymously with the term other to mean an important person to whom one becomes attached.
Object relations theory pertains to the developmental stages of the self in relationship to
others/objects, particularly at young ages.
Existential/ Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow
Maslow (1962) founded his theory of personality upon a hierarchy of needs comprised of
lower-order needs (physiological necessities and safety)
higher-order needs, sometimes called metaneeds, (belongingness and love, self-esteem and, finally, self-actualization)
Existential/ Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow
Assuming the presence of a supportive environment, Maslow contended that it is human nature
to strive toward self-actualization, which is characterized by:
efforts to create and learn
acceptance of and a democratic attitude toward others
a sense of autonomy
Existential/ Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow
Maslow used the term “third force” psychology since he considered it to be in opposition to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
Existential/ Humanistic Theories
Carl Rogers
Rogers (1961) expounded a self-theory of personality. He believed that problems occur when one’s real self (self-concept) and one’s ideal self are not the same; there’s a discrepancy between the two. The actualizing tendency is the motivating force that leads individuals to do
away with the discrepancies and thereby reach their highest potential.
Cognitive Theories
Jean Piaget
Piaget’s contributions to the understanding of cognitive development fall into four observations:
1. Individuals exhibit irregular rates of development. Each stage evolves from a readiness phase in which prerequisites for the next stage are attained to an attainment phase in which the individual employs characteristics required for the next functioning
stage.
2. The development within each stage is a gradual, broadening of the capacity toward usage of the highest elements within that stage of operations.
3. A “state of mind” involving an element of self-consciousness develops when new or next-stage tasks are attempted.
4. With progress through each higher order stage comes “decentering” as the individual’s focus moves from self to the outer world.
Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget The following is a summary of Piaget’s (1954) four stages: STAGE 1 Sensorimotor Age 0-2
Sensorimotor intelligence is showcased (reflexes).
A child’s actions are indicative of the child’s intelligence. Infants grow to recognize themselves (self) as able to effect action.
The child begins to act intentionally, e.g. jiggling a toy to make noise.
OBJECT PERMANENCE- (the realization that objects exist even when they are no longer perceived by the senses) develops.
Piaget said that the essence of this stage is portrayed by the term “practical intelligence.”
Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget The following is a summary of Piaget’s (1954) four stages: STAGE 2 Pre- Operational Age 2-6
Words, images, and drawings are used by children to represent their world.
Thought patterns remain egocentric as the child cannot distinguish between his/her perspective and that of someone else.
Objects are sorted or classified by just one feature (centration), e.g. all green toys are grouped together regardless of size or type.
A key development of this stage is the realization that an object can be used for more than one purpose, not just for its originally intended purpose/use, e.g. a
frisbee becomes a steering wheel of an imaginary car.
In Piaget’s terminology, all symbolic schemata are acquired in this stage laying the foundation for language acquisition and symbolism usage in play.
Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget The following is a summary of Piaget’s (1954) four stages: STAGE 3 Concrete Operational Age 6-12
A logical element enters a child’s thinking about events and objects.
CONSERVATION- of numbers (about age 7) and of weight (about age 9) marks this stage.
More features can be accommodated during classification.
Series and sub-sets are used.
The child operates in the here and now yet is able to mentally visualize and make mental representations, e.g. being able to tell how to get from home to the gas station.
Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget The following is a summary of Piaget’s (1954) four stages: STAGE 4 Formal Operational Age 12 and up
The child is able to think abstractly and logically and can apply systematic deductive reasoning to hypothetical and contrary-to-fact problems.
Multiple hypotheses regarding a situation may be entertained.
A lack of success in algebra, geometry, and physics indicate that this stage of operations may not have been reached.
The future, ideological problems, and hypothetical situations become the child’s concerns as he/she becomes preoccupied with thinking.
Characteristic patterns of this stage include problem solving, plan making, validating beliefs, and differentiating one’s self-awareness based on his/her roles in life.
The child is ready for adulthood and will not experience childlike feelings of helplessness.
Piaget felt that many people never attain these operations.
Cognitive Theories
Jean Piaget
Mechanisms for Growth
Three major mechanisms that allow a child to adapt and, therefore, move from one stage to the next are assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.
- Assimilation is the incorporation of old ideas or old habits with new objects thus providing a new event (taking in new information, noticing, comprehending).
- Accommodation is the adjusting to a new object or new information; the changing of one’s conceptions to fit the new object (revising concepts based on new
information) . - Equilibration is the devising/forming of new theories in order to realize balance between assimilation and accommodation.
Jean Piaget Terms
Egocentrism
Centration
Conservation
- Egocentrism – the quality of not being able to view an object from another’s vantage point.
- Centration – the quality of focusing on a key feature rather than on the whole object (looking at someone’s eyeglasses instead of the whole face).
- Conservation – achieved during the concrete operational stage; the understanding that the weight, mass, and volume remain the same in spite of the
shape (empty a tall, thin bottle of water into a short, wide bottle).
Lawerence Kohlberg
Kohlberg (1984) expanded upon Piaget’s model to explain and to account for such social phenomena as gender identity, sexual typing, and emotional ability.
Heinz Story
Kohlberg is perhaps best known for his theory of the development of a person’s stages of justice or moral reasoning. His model has three levels with two stages each
Lawerence Kohlberg
Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages of Moral Developement
Level 1 Preconventional Morarlity
Preconventional Morality (around ages 4 to 10)
Self-guided moral behavior with accompanying consequences (premoral).
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
A punishment or consequence is more important than societalexpectations or the law.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation
(sometimes called Naïve Hedonism or Egotistic)
An individual’s social judgments and interactions are based out of self-needs (self-centeredness).
Lawerence Kohlberg
Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages of Moral Developement
Level 2 Coventional Morality
Conventional Morality (around ages 10 to 13)
An individual’s social judgments and interactions are based out of a desire to preserve one’s place in society, to meet the expectations of the family and
society; often termed “morality of conventional rules and conformity.”
Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance Orientation
Behavior is chosen to please and gain approval. The term “good girl/good boy” characterizes this level (one follows the rules; does what he/she is supposed to).
Stage 4: Authority, Law, and Duty Orientation
Rules and laws are viewed as promoting the common good and maintaining social order; therefore, there is a duty to obey them.
Lawerence Kohlberg
Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages of Moral Developement
Level 3 Postconventional Morality
Postconventional Morality (around ages 13 and older)
(sometimes called Morality of Self-Accepted Principles or PersonalIntegrity)
Moral behavior is guided by a self-accepted/self-imposed commitment to moralprinciples.
Stage 5: Social Contract or Democratically Accepted Law Orientation Society as a whole examines moral principles and then agrees upon or changes them by consensus.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical and Self-Conscious Principles Orientation An individual’s social judgments and interactions are based out of universal principles
Carol Gilligan
Carol Gilligan (1982, 1985) criticized Kohlberg’s model of moral development as being too male oriented. She suggested that care and responsibility in interpersonal relationships must be considered in moral development models, especially with females.
Ivan Pavlov
Behavioral theories and social learning therories
classical conditioning/ respondent conditioning
Before conditioning, the dog food (UCS) produces salivation (UCR). During conditioning, the dog food (UCS) is paired with a ringing bell (neutral) so that the bell
becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) producing salivation (CR). After conditioning, the bell (CS) produces salivation (CR).
Joseph Wolpe
Wolpe theorized that all neurotic behavior is an expression of anxiety. Psychosis is learned.
Wolpe found classical conditioning theory useful in psychotherapy as he initiated the concepts of reciprocal inhibition and SYSTEMATIC desensitization, techniques which served to reduce anxiety. His treatment paired relaxation with an anxiety-provoking stimulus until the stimulus no longer provoked anxiety.
Edward Thorndike
Law of effect
Thorndike first formulated the law of effect, sometimes called “trial and error learning,” which basically stated that
a consequence of behavior
a reward (a satisfying result)
a punishment (an unpleasant, annoying result)
determined whether the strength of a stimulus-response connection was either increased or decreased. Thorndike was fundamentally an associationist; his law of effect was
founded in connectionism (the stimulus-response connections that were “successful” by “chance” rather than by “insight” or rational analysis)
BF Skinner
The priniciple of reinforcement
Types of Reinforcements
a. Positive – a consequence that is added, thereby strengthening the response that precedes it by virtue of its presentation. (Examples: stickers on good school work; payment for work; compliments for accomplishments)
b. Negative – a consequence that is withdrawn or terminated thereby strengthening the response that precedes it by virtue of its removal or termination.
In other words, when a negative event is removed, the desiredbehavior takes place. (Examples: Being released from detentionhall early for good behavior. Skinner’s rats were continuously shocked until they pushed a bar that turned off the current. Turning off a shock is a negative event because it takes away a stimulus.
Since removal of the shocks increases the likelihood that a rat will push the bar again, the event is reinforcing.)
c. Primary – an event with reinforcing qualities that are barely dependent, if dependent at all, on prior learning. (Example: food).
d. Secondary – an event that is not inherently pleasant or reinforcing but it becomes so through its association with other reinforcing stimuli.
(Example: money – currency is not in itself reinforcing, but thethings money can buy are; token economies work the same way)
e. Partial or intermittent – reinforcement that occurs only sometimes, not every
time the desired response is given.
f. Punishment – an aversive stimulus used repeatedly to produce avoidance
behavior.
BF Skinner
Schedule of reinforcements
Fixed Interval Schedule:
Reinforcement is given after a certain fixed period
of time. Example people who recived a salary fit this category.
Variable Interval Schedule:
Reinforcement is given at variable (unpredictable) intervals of time.
Fixed Ratio schedule:
Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses
are performed.
Variable-Ratio Schedule:
The number of responses required before being
reinforced is unpredictable/continually changing.
FOR EXAMPLE: Let’s say you are sitting at a slot
BF Skinner
Token Economy
a medium of exchange for the giving or withdrawing of positive reinforcers.
Albert Bandura
Social Learning theory
Systems of Control
Bandura stated that three systems control behavior. Theoretically, behavior is controlled by one of the three systems. In reality, most behaviors result from a
combination of two or all three of these systems:
1) Systems of Control
- environmental stimuli
- conditioned stimuli
- responses controlled by stimuli present at the time of reinforcement or punishment
2) Outcomes control- Consquences of behavior, including all reinforcing feedback concerning the appropriateness of the behavior, affect future behavior (bouncing checks at the bank).
3) . Symbolic or Internal Control - Imagining or self-instruction that allows an individual to visualize or to predict the outcomes and long-range consequences of various behaviors (saving money for a down payment on a house).
The measuring of personality (trait theories)
Raymond Cattell
Cattell’s (1946) contribution was to compile a list of 171 surface traits (observable individual differences in personality) for rating individuals.
Using factor analysis and intercorrelation of ratings, Cattell then consolidated the traits into 16 underlying source traits or dimensions.
Cattell’s work resulted in the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) which measures source traits in individuals.
Ethological, biological, and physical theories (includes attachment theory)
HF Harlow
Harlow’s (1959) study (Harlow and Zimmerman rhesus monkey study) looked at the bonding process or contact comfort using infant monkeys and cloth substitute mothers.
The researchers discovered that these infant monkeys became attached to terry cloth mothers.
They clung to cloth substitutes in strange environments or in other stressful situations.
They preferred artificial mothers that rocked over ones that did not move.
They preferred warm substitute mothers over cold ones.
The fact that the mother provided food was neither necessary nor enough to establish attachment.
Ethological, biological, and physical theories (includes attachment theory)
Konrad Lorenz
Lorenz (1965) found that a brief period of irreversible imprinting (bonding) occurs during a critical period (a time period in which a particular behavior must be learned, or it won’t be acquired or learned at all).
His experiment involved goslings where he became the first moving object they saw, instead of their mother. The goslings followed him around instead of their mother.
Imprinting is an instinctual behavior. Instinctual behaviors are sometimes called “species-specific” meaning that every member of that species exhibits that behavior trait.
Ethological, biological, and physical theories (includes attachment theory)
John Bowlby
Bowlby’s study emphasized the adaptive function or adaptive significance of attachment. In other words, bonding and attachment are necessary for survival.
Adaptation to prolonged separation from a caretaker has three stages:
1. Protest – will not accept the separation; screams, cries, etc.
2. Despair – gives up hope of reconciliation; becomes quiet, inactive, and withdrawn.
3. Detachment – accepts attention from others; seems less unhappy; is unmoved by the
caretaker returning.
Baumrind Baumrind (1971) and her colleagues described three parenting styles in terms of their restrictiveness or permissiveness:
(1) Authoritarian – The parents deliberately try to shape the behavior of the child according to their own standards of conduct.They put a premium on obedience and may use punishment to curb undesirable behavior or rebellion.
(2) Permissive – This style of parenting adopts the policy of keeping hands off and letting children “be themselves” with the hope that this will encourage the child to become self-reliant and develop initiative.
(3) Authoritative – This is the most effective form of parenting. The parents have definite standards, but they also encourage the child to be independent and will solicit the child’s opinions at times.
Effects of divorce
Divorce is stressful for all concerned.
Considerable distress will be felt by both parents.
Relationships with children often deteriorate.
The custodial parent will be more restrictive, impatient, inconsistent, and uncommunicative.
Noncustodial fathers may be overly indulgent and overly permissive. Visits and child support may decline or stop.
Children commonly become more aggressive, noncompliant, and disruptive.
Children may experience academic difficulties.
Preschool-aged children may experience more difficulties than older children in the short term.
Older children suffer more in the long term.
Boys tend to be more adversely affected than girls and recover more slowly.
Effects of remarriage
Remarriage rates within three to five years: 75 percent of divorced mothers 80 percent of divorced fathers
Older children will have a longer recovery time with remarriage than divorce.
Girls seem to be more reluctant to accept a step-father.
Preadolescent boys seem to benefit from having a step-father.
Erik Erikson- Stages of adult development
Erik Erikson formulated an eight (8) stage theory of development based on the Psycho-Social
Crises that individuals encounter. Erikson’s complete theory is laid out in the discussion of
psychoanalytic theories elsewhere in this manual.
- In early adulthood( 20-35) INTIMACY VS ISOLATION, the task of the individual is to learn to be intimate with others. A lack ofintimacy results in isolation, depending only on oneself.
-In middle adulthood, (35-65) GENERATIVITY VS STAGNATION the individual formulates plans to leave a legacy to the next generation.
Stagnation or self-absorption results when the person feels he/she has done nothing for the next
generation.
-In late adulthood, (65 and older) INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR the individual evaluates whether life has been worthwhile and has, therefore, been lived with integrity.
Daniel Levinson
Three major adult transitions
A. Early adult transition – occurs between 17 and 22
The individual’s concept of his ideal adult life is conceived; decisions are made regarding college, military service, and breaking away from one’s parents.
This transition is followed by a period of entering the adult world.
B. Age 30 transition – occurs between 28 and 33
The individual works at making the ideal become reality; earlier decisions are evaluated.
After this stage, a settling down period commences.
C. Midlife transition – occurs between 40 and 45
Dreams are questioned; unreached goals are acknowledged; mortality is recognized; a stressful timeframe.
The later periods or stages (middle and late adulthood) begins at age 46 and isconcerned with formulating appropriate life structures for love, marriage, vocation,
and family.
Daniel Levinson
Midlife Crisis
A “Midlife Crisis” may occur, usually between the ages of 35 and 45 years. Such a crisis is often triggered by external events like divorce or children leaving home. The crisis will usually be moderate to severe and will involve:
evaluating differences between goals and accomplishments
confronting one’s limitations
accepting the inevitability of aging and death
Four stage cycle of sexual arousal
Masters and Johnson
Masters & Johnson studied sexual responses in men and women for eleven years and delineated a four-stage cycle for both:
- Excitement Phase – Initiated by whatever is stimulating to the person; heart, respiration, and blood pressure rates increase. Erection and engorgements occur.
- Plateau Phase – The tension prepares the body for orgasm. There is increased stimulation of the body parts and functions.
- Orgasm Phase – The body changes resulting from stimulation reaching maximum intensity. Muscles in female and male sexual organs contract rhythmically.
- Resolution Phase – A lessening of sexual tension as the person returns to the unstimulated state.
Provisional Diagnosis
A provisional diagnosis implies that there is enough information to make a “working” diagnosis but that the clinician wishes to indicate a certain degree a
diagnostic uncertainty.
Multiaxial Assessment
Axis I Clinical Disorders
Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention
Axis II Personality Disorders
Mental Retardation
Axis III General Medical Conditions
Axis IV Psychosocial and environmental problems
Axis V Global Assessment of Functioning
Criteria for Autism
The best known of the Pervasive Developmental Disorders is Autism which is conceptualized in terms of three categories of symptoms:
- impairment in social interaction
- impairment in communication
- restricted, repetitive, or stereotyped patterns of behavior
DELIRIUM AND DEMENTIA
Distinguishing between delirium and dementia can be difficult. Accurate differential diagnosis of these conditions is best accomplished through the examination of:
classic symptomatology
the rate of onset
clinical prognosis or course
DELIRIUM
Delirium rapid reversible •perceptual distortions •disrupted attentional impairment •disoriented
DEMENTIA
Dementia gradual, subtle, insidious degenerative progressive or stable •multiple cognitive impairments •primary disturbance of memory
Schizophrenia
Hallucinations and delusions are considered to be positive symptoms, implying that they are excesses and do not occur among normals. Other positive symptoms
involve disorganization of speech or behavior.
Negative symptoms represent deficits in comparison to the functioning of individuals without schizophrenia and specifically involve avolition, anhedonia, amotivation, alogia, and flat affect. These are more prominent during the latter or residual phase of a schizophrenic episode.
Avolition – without will; no desires
Anhedonia – not able to enjoy normally enjoyable
experiences
Amotivation – without a drive for achievement
Alogia – diminished thinking ability
Schizophrenia
Subtypes of schizophrenia
- Paranoid Schizophrenia involves an organized delusional system or theme such as persecution.
- Disorganized Schizophrenia involves a primary disturbance of self-care habits or language.
- Catatonic Schizophrenia involves a primary disruption of motor functioning, either to excess (agitated movement) or to near-paralysis (catatonia).
- Undifferentiated Schizophrenia is the sub-type in which the clinician is unable to successfully classify the patient’s symptoms into any of the preceding subtype
descriptions.
Mood Disorders
- Bipolar I is characterized by one or more Manic or Mixed Episodes, usuallyaccompanied by alternating Major Depressive Episodes.
- Bipolar II is characterized by one or more Major Depressive Episodes accompanied by at least one Hypomanic Episode (but no episodes meeting the
criteria for full-blown mania). - Cyclothymia is characterized by at least two years of numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms that do not meet criteria for a Manic Episode and numerous periods of depressive symptoms that do not meet criteria for a Major
Depressive Episode.
Mood disorders with exclusively negative episodes
Major Depressive Disorder and Dysthymia are the terms used in the DSM-IV to describe negative mood or depressed conditions.
Major Depressive Disorder is characterized by one or more Major Depressive Episodes (i.e., at least two weeks of depressed mood or loss of interest accompanied
by at least four additional symptoms of depression).
Dysthymia is characterized by at least two years of depressed mood for more days than not, accompanied by additional depressive symptoms that do not meet criteria
for a Major Depressive Episode.
Eating disorders
Anorexia
The diagnostic criteria for Anorexia involve:
a refusal to maintain minimal body weight for age and height
an intense fear of weight gain or becoming fat (even though under weight)
a disturbance in the way one’s body shape or weight is experienced. In postmenarcheal females, amenorrhea is also seen.
The three most common medical complications of people who are suffering from anorexia
nervosa are:
loss of menses (amenorrhea)
constipation
hypotension
Eating disorders
Bulimia
Bulimia is easily differentiated as it involves recurrent episodes of binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behavior in order to prevent weight gain (self-induced vomiting, laxative use, or over-exercise).
