Human Development Flashcards
Life-Cycle, Life-Span Approach
While theories of human growth and development have offered a variety of conceptual models for explaining the changes humans experience, the life-cycle approach (Santrock, 1999; Baltes, 1987) is currently the most widely used. The eight periods of life-span development are delineated in this order: 1. Prenatal 2. Infancy 3. Early childhood 4. Middle and late childhood 5. Adolescence 6. Early adulthood 7. Middle adulthood 8. Late adulthood
Nature vs Nurture Controversy
No textbook on human growth and development is complete without at least a paragraph on the
nature vs. nurture argument regarding how and why development takes place.
Nature, of course, refers to the hereditary nature of development.
Nurture refers to the effect of the child’s environment on that development.
While some theorists have argued for one or the other’s influence, today’s theorists recognize that both factors powerfully impact development.
Psychoanalytic Theories
Sigmund Freud
Freud’s concept of the unconcious
Freud saw personality as having a conscious mind, a preconscious mind, and an unconscious mind.
1. Conscious mind – Known impulses, events, memories; present knowledge.
2. Preconscious mind – Easily recalled but not currently known memories and
drives.
3. Unconscious mind – Emotions, thoughts, memories, drives etc. that are influencing behavior without current awareness; hidden or forgotten experiences.
Freud’s concept of the unconscious, a radically new idea at the time, is thought by many to be one of his greatest contributions to psychological thought. Critics,
however, emphasize that the unconscious cannot be verified scientifically.
Freud’s
Topographical
Freud’s notion of the unconscious, preconscious, and conscious mind is called a topographical concept. Just as a topographer is a map drawer, a Freudian analyst maps
the mind as if it looked like an iceberg.
Freud’s System of Personality
- The id
The id is present at birth and represents a biological, instinctual component that cannot bear tension. The id functions under the pleasure principle and, therefore,
demands immediate gratification, the avoidance or diminishing of pain, and the securing of pleasure. The id is not rational or logical and has no concept of time.
The id is part of the unconscious mind. - The ego
The ego develops as the psychological component that wields power over the id. The ego functions under the reality principle and, therefore, logically and
realistically plans appropriate ways to fulfill needs. The ego is pressed by the id to give in to pleasure and gratification in spite of the consequences. The ego operates primarily in the conscious and preconscious minds. - The superego
The superego represents the social component, made up of the conscience and ego ideals. It is from the superego that a person pursues perfection. Guilty feelings
result from a violation of the standards and morals set by the superego.
Freud’s Cathexis
Cathexis is the process by which sources of energy are tied to thoughts, actions, objects, or people.
Freud’s Fixation
is the resistance of a person to move to the next stage because the cathexis is too intense. In other words, if a person experiences either too much pain (trauma) or too much pleasure at any given stage, he/she may resist letting go of that stage. Cognitive and physical development occurs, but emotional
development is “stuck.” Fixation during a stage leads to certain problems as adults.
Each of Freud’s stages is emblematic of certain developmental issues and is named for the corresponding physical (bodily) source of pleasure (psychosexual stage):
Oral: 0 - 2 years Pleasure is derived from nursing and sucking. Infants will put everything into their mouths.
Anal: 2 - 3 years The first experience of “imposed control” is found in the form of toilet training. Gratification is derived from withholding or expelling feces.
Phallic: 3 - 6 years Pleasure is derived from fondling genitals. Children observe the differences between males and females and direct their awakening sexual impulses toward the parent of the opposite sex:
Oedipus Complex – boy desires sexual relations with his mother.
Electra Complex – girl desires sexual relations with her father.
In order to become an ally of:
his father, the boy will adopt traditional male roles.
her mother, the girl will adopt traditional female roles.
The Oedipus Complex is Freud’s most controversial concept.
Freud theorized that the identification of the child with the same-sex parent leads to internalization of authoritarian/parental values which leads to the
emergence of the super-ego or conscious.
Latency: 6 - puberty The child becomes less concerned with his/her body and turns his/her
attention to the skills needed for coping with the environment. This is the only stage not primarily psychosexual in nature.
Genital: puberty The adolescent begins to turn his/her interests towards others and to love in
a more mature way.
Freud’s Ego Defense Mechanisms
Anxiety
Anxiety is the result of conflict among the id, the ego, and the superego. Ego defense mechanisms are employed as unconscious coping mechanisms when the superego cannot control anxiety by rational and direct methods (Corey, 1986). Ego defense mechanisms reduce anxiety by denying or distorting reality. Freudians believe that repression is the most important of the ego defense mechanisms.
Freud
Wish Fulfillment
Freud believed that a dream can be a wish fulfillment. These wishes or desires can either be conscious or unconscious.
A slip-of-the-tongue can also signify such a wish or desire.
Freud’s theory is a Maturation Theory
Freud’s developmental theory could be classified as a maturation theory (as is Erikson’s) because Freud believed that the developmental order or the unfolding of behavior is programmed by heredity.
Certain stimuli must be present in the environment, however, for the next behavior to emerge.
Additionally, a necessary predetermined level of neural development must be present for the next behavior to emer
Carl Jung
Analytical Psychology
Jung’s theory, analytical psychology, grew out of Jung’s disagreement with Freud that neuroses originated in the libido (sexual origin). Jung instead emphasized a general psychic energy (Hunt, 1993).
Individuation • Personal Growth • Self-actualization
Carl Jung
Also, Jung believed that individuals by instinct are driven toward individuation, that agreement or harmony between the conscious and unconscious parts of their
personality.
This wholeness or personal growth is realized as the individual becomes more and more aware of his/her unconscious side.
This progress toward self-actualization can be a life-long process.
Logos vs. Eros Principle
Jung said that: men operate on logic or the logos principle;
women operate on intuition or the eros principle.
Archetypes
Carl Jung
Jung’s review of literature led him to believe that certain archetypes have appeared in religious writings, dreams, myths, and fables since the dawn of recorded history. These archetypes are the common, collective unconscious which is passed on from generation
to generation.
Some common archetypes are:
Anima – the female characteristics of the personality
Animus – the male characteristics of the personality
Shadow – the unconscious opposite of a person’s conscious expression
The Persona – the mask worn or the role presented to hide one’s true self
Major Contributions to the Field of Psychology
Carl Jung
Jung is credited with the word-association technique and the introversion-extroversion concept.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, a leading personality inventory using bipolar scales, is based on Jung’s work.
Alfred Alder
Individual Psychology
holistic view of development, individual psychology, asserts that what an individual is born with or into (heredity and environment) is not the determining factor in one’s development. Rather, the endeavoring to reach individual goals determines an individual’s lifestyle and behavior. Therefore, one is always becoming, trying to achieve one’s self-ideal. Feelings of inferiority come from one’s self not
Alfred Alder
Birth order makes a difference. The birth of each child impacts the family system thereby influencing the personality development of each child; in effect, each child
is born into a different family environment.
Oldest – Usually high achievers, dependable, hard working, “parent pleasing,” conforming, well-behaved, may have an underlying insecurity from being displaced by the second child.
Second – Usually outgoing, less constrained by rules, seems to be in a race to surpass the older sibling, and often excels at what the first born does not.
Middle – Become concerned with perceived unfairness as he or she feels squeezed out, can become a problem child, thrive in family politics and negotiations, and may become manipulative.
Youngest – Usually adept at pleasing or entertaining the family, often high achievers, tend to go their own way into areas of development no other family member has even considered, run the risk of being spoiled.
Only – Usually a high achiever like an oldest child, deals well with adults, may be slow in developing social skills, may be pampered or spoiled. These characteristics also apply to children born seven or more years apart from
siblings.
Harry Stack Sullivan was the most influential theorist to discuss the importance of friendships.
A person experiences interpersonal relationships and thus experiences ego formation through these three modes of experience:
1. Protaxic – Infancy; the infant has no concept of time and place.
2. Parataxic – Early childhood; the child accepts what is without questioning or
evaluating and then reacts on an unrealistic basis.
3. Syntaxic – Later childhood; the child is able to evaluate his/her own thoughts and feelings against those of others and learns about relationship patterns in society.
Sullivan’s Six Stages of Development:
- Infancy – Being nursed provides the initial social experience (“good mother” feeds; “bad mother” withholds).
- Childhood – Societies’ expectations of behavior are learned; language is acquired.
- Juvenile – Entering school moves the child out of the family; individual goals begin to develop.
- Preadolescence – Close same-sex friendships develop;
social rules with reciprocal concepts develop. - Early Adolescence – Heterosexual interests are sparked by puberty.
- Late Adolescence – Social awareness develops; establishing a family and contributing to the community become the task at hand.
Karen Horney
Horney believed as Freud did in the importance of powerful unconscious intrapsychic conflicts. Yet, she dismissed the construct of libido and the assumption
that people are motivated by an inborn sense of self-destruction.
Neurosis is the outworking of what Horney called “basic anxiety.”
Erik Erickson
Ego Identity
is the balance of what “one feels one is and what others take one to be” (Erikson, 1963). The ego is not content to merely absorb and incorporate (assimilate) parental qualities; the ego works toward becoming an autonomous,
unique self.
Erik Erickson
Identity Crisis
Erikson coined the term “identity crisis,” meaning that an adolescent is not able to integrate all of his or her previous roles into a single self-concept.
Some of these roles are of an experimental nature as adolescents attempt to find out who they really are.
Conformity with peers is at issue.
Erik Erickson
Epigenetic
Erikson’s theory is based on the epigenetic principle, meaning that each strength has its own period of particular importance.
As the individual progresses through the development of these strengths, it is up to the individual to make something of his or her life.
Ego identity requires more than simply mirroring or reflecting the values of someone he or she admires.
Erik Erickson
Maturation Theory
Erikson’s developmental theory could be classified as a maturation theory (as is Freud’s) because Erikson believed that the developmental order or unfolding of behavior is programmed by heredity.
Erik Erickson
Psycho-Social Stages
Developmental Stage Psycho-social Crisis
1. Early infancy
(Birth - 1 year)———–Basic trust vs. mistrust
2. Later infancy
(1 - 2 years)———–Autonomy vs. shame & doubt
3. Early childhood
(3 - 5 years)—————–Initiative vs. guilt
4. Middle childhood
(6 - 11 years)——————Industry vs. inferiority
5. Adolescence
(12 - 20 years)—————Identity vs. role confusion
6. Early adulthood
(20 - 35 years)——————-Intimacy vs. isolation
Sharing one’s life with others vs.
I’m the only one I can depend on
7. Middle adulthood
(35 - 65 years)——————-Generativity vs. stagnation
The productive ability to create a career,
family, leisure time, etc. vs. self-absorption
8. Late adulthood
(65+ years)—————-Integrity vs. despair
Life has been worthwhile vs. life’s precious
opportunities have been wasted.
Object Relations Theory
The term object was used by Freud to mean that which satisfies a need or that which is the target of one’s feelings or drives. It is used synonymously with the term other to mean an important person to whom one becomes attached.
Object relations theory pertains to the developmental stages of the self in relationship to
others/objects, particularly at young ages.
Existential/ Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow
Maslow (1962) founded his theory of personality upon a hierarchy of needs comprised of
lower-order needs (physiological necessities and safety)
higher-order needs, sometimes called metaneeds, (belongingness and love, self-esteem and, finally, self-actualization)
Existential/ Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow
Assuming the presence of a supportive environment, Maslow contended that it is human nature
to strive toward self-actualization, which is characterized by:
efforts to create and learn
acceptance of and a democratic attitude toward others
a sense of autonomy
