Social And Cultural Developments In Germany 1924-28

Question 1

Why are the years 1924-28 of the Weimar Republic culturally known as the golden age?

Answer 1

. Weimar constitution gave German citizens more rights, freedom, opportunities than ever
. Many embraced these opportunities with enthusiasm and innovation, challenging traditional views in the name of ‘modernity’

Question 2

Who broadly conflicted with the idea of freedom and innovation in the Golden age?

Answer 2

Those who were dissatisfied with the passing of a way of life where society was rooted in traditional values and with clear responsibility and authority
- wanted to preserve social stability and an older, specifically German way of life
- they were resistant to change

Question 3

What were the social welfare reforms of the Weimar government between 1924-27?

Answer 3

1924: public assistance system was modernised, providing more help to the poor
1925: state accident insurance scheme extended to cover those suffering from occupational diseases to help those injured at work rather than just from war injury as previously
1927: national unemployment insurance scheme introduced to provide benefits for the unemployed, financed by contributions from workers and employers

Question 4

Were the new social welfare reforms all good news?

Answer 4

No:
. Many Germans felt the reforms promised more than they were delivered
. The reforms were very expensive, considering the volatile state of the Weimar economy this wasn’t a very wise set of reforms to promise

Question 5

What is the evidence to show that the weimar’s social welfare reforms were too expensive?

Answer 5

. 1926, state supported around 800k disabled war veterans, 360k war widows and over 900k war orphans
- the Weimar government are trying to be popular and helpful but it is probably out of their budget
. Old age pensions also had to be paid
. After 1927, the cost of unemployment benefits worsened the costs
. Welfare system needed a large and expensive bureaucracy to administer it

The idea of the golden age in modernising German and bringing it back to some form of glory was out of their budget at this time

Question 6

How did the Weimar government try to pay for the ambitious social welfare reforms reforms they were introducing?

Answer 6

. Raised taxes in 1924
- the better-off weren’t too keen on shouldering the burden of welfare expenditure

Although the intentions of the reforms were good, they just couldn’t be afforded in a way that would please everyone

Question 7

How did the Weimar government attempt to keep expenditure on social welfare as low as possible?

Answer 7

Those administering benefits at a local level used different methods:
. Means tests tightened up, snoopers checked to make sure nobody was cheating the benefits
. Increasing delays in paying benefits

Question 8

How were the extensions and modernising of social welfare reforms in the golden age very much a double edged sword? (Most important flashcard in the section for social welfare reforms)

Answer 8

It was impossible to satisfy everyone:
. Trying to fund all the reforms fully for everyone who needed them would mean raising taxes greatly which the better-off wouldn’t have wanted
. At the same time, trying to keep expenditure on these reforms down to appease the spending meant many in need of support (war veterans and their families) felt they were being humiliated by the strictness of the welfare system

In the end at least some group was going to feel cheated on by the Weimar Republic, so some section of society would undermine support for them

Question 9

What is the generally census on living standards in the golden age?

Answer 9

The living standards of millions of Germans undoubtedly improved

Question 10

Who got the better living standards in the golden age and why?

Answer 10

. Those in work such as those represented by powerful trade unions could negotiate wage increase and maintain good living standards
. Business owners and their salaried employees benefitted from improved trading position for German companies at this time

Question 11

Who got the worse living standards/lifestyles in the golden age?

Answer 11

. Those dependent on welfare benefits less well off and suffered some hardships
- however, the welfare system helped many from falling into abject poverty
. Those who’d lost savings in hyperinflation crisis unable to regain comfortable lifestyles they once had
. Farmers suffered from poor trading conditions and lower prices, their incomes were falling

Question 12

Where was the golden age most successful?

Answer 12

Cities such as Berlin, the confidence in the Weimar Republic and amazing living standards wasn’t the case across the whole of germany though

Question 13

What was the popular idea of a ‘new woman’ during the golden age?

Answer 13

A symbol of the way women’s lives had changed since the end of WW1:
. Free, sexually free, increasingly visible in public life
. Weimar constitution gave women equality with men in voting rights and in access to education
- also gave women equal opportunities in civil service appointments and right to equal pay

Question 14

How did the war heavily affect the role of women in Weimar Germany, showing how the idea of a ‘new woman’ came about?

Answer 14

. Over 2 million Germans (mostly young males) had been killed in the war, so young women weren’t as able to form the conventional path of marriage and stay-at-home
. War brought many more women into paid employment to replace men who had fought

The war actually brought many opportunities for women to take a more visible role in Germany

Question 15

What was the Civil Code and when was it created?

Answer 15

Had been around since 1896
- laid down that in a marriage, the husband had the right to decide on all matters concerning family life, including whether his wife should undertake paid employment

This was still in place during the golden age, limiting how extensive the change was for women

Question 16

What was the most popular women’s group in the 1920s and what did it promote?

Answer 16

League of German Women (BDF)
- had 900k members
- promoted traditional family values and maternal responsibilities

Clearly the extent of how much people supported the idea of a ‘new woman’ is limited as the most popular women’s group was against the value of the ‘new woman’

Question 17

Apart from women, who echoed the idea that the idea of a ‘new woman’ was a myth and shouldn’t be seen in social life?

Answer 17

. More conservative political parties and the churches were alarmed by changes they considered a threat to family values

Question 18

What was the myth of the ‘new women’ in terms of employment?

Answer 18

. Weimar constitution gave women greater equality in employment rights
. By 1925, 36% of the German work force were women
. By 1933, there were 100k women teachers and 3000 doctors

Question 19

What was the reality of employment for women during the ‘golden age’?

Answer 19

. ‘Demobilisation laws’ after the war required women to leave their jobs so ex-soldiers could find employment
. In many occupations, women were required to give up their employment when they married
. Women were paid much less than men doing equivalent work
. Married women who continued to have paid jobs were attacked as ‘double-earners’ and blamed for male unemployment.
- campaigns in the press and by conservative parties for the dismissal of married women workers

Question 20

What was the myth of sexual freedom for women during the golden age?

Answer 20

. Birth control became more widely available and birth rate declined
. Divorce rates increased
. Rise in number of abortions, by 1930 there were around 1 million abortions a year

Question 21

What was the reality of sexual freedom for women during the golden age?

Answer 21

. Abortions were a criminal offence, often performed by unqualified people. In 1930, around 10-12k deaths each year from abortions
. Decline in birth rates was attacked by the conservative press and politicians as a ‘birth strike’ that threatened the health of the nation and the continued existence of the race
. Catholic and Protestant churches were vigorously opposed to brith control, divorce and abortions. Manu German women were committed member of church congregations

Question 22

What was the myth of women in politics and public life during the golden age?

Answer 22

. Women gained equal voting rights and right to be Reichstag deputies in the Weimar constitution
. 1919, 41 women were elected to the Reichstag, but number of women deputies fell in subsequent elections
- Reichstag had higher proportion of female deputies than House of Commons
. Women were very active in local government at state and city level

Question 23

What was the reality of politics and public life for women in the golden age?

Answer 23

. No female representatives in Reichsrat
. No women became a cabinet member during the Weimar Republic
. No political party had a female leader in Weimar years
. Only the KPD made gender equality a key element in its programme but it was least appealing parent to the new female electorate
. Party that gained most from female suffrage was the centre party. This party didn’t give any support to feminist issues

Question 24

Who was Clara Zetkin, what were her actions and beliefs?

Answer 24

KPD member of Reichstag from 1920-33
- had been active in SPD before 1914
- leading campaigner for women’s rights, organising the first international women’s day in 1911
- close friend of Rosa Luxembourg
- blamed capitalism for reducing women to the status of breeder and home builders
- Believed women could only truly be liberated through socialist revolution

Question 25

Who was Paula Müller-Otfried, what were her beliefs and actions?

Answer 25

. Devout Protestant and co-founder of the German Protestant Women’s league - very active in her church and in her social work - opposed to women’s suffrage, warning that voting rights couldn’t improve women’s lives - Reichstag deputy in 1920 up to 1932 as a member of the DNVP

Question 26

Overall, how much did women’s lives change in the golden age?

Answer 26

. Women didn’t completely enter a new era of female equality as the concept of a ‘new woman’ was mostly a myth, or exaggerated . However, the achievement of women’s suffrage in 1919 brought the debate on women’s struggle to the heart of politics . The role of women became a symbol of the struggle in the Weimar Republic between a modern, free society and a society with traditional values . ‘New woman’ was used as the basis of a scapegoat for Germany’s social and economic ills

Question 27

How did the number of female deputies in the Reichstag change from 1919-1930?

Answer 27

1919: 41 May 1924: 27 1930: 42 It was actually lower in the golden age clearly, showing the myth of the ‘new woman’

Question 28

What was the main concern around German youth during the golden age?

Answer 28

That they were increasingly breaking free from the constraints of family, school and religion with this new concept of liberation and modernisation. This became quite chaotic and youth increasingly turned to a life of crime and anti-social behaviour instead of the positive side of modernisation

Question 29

How did youth unemployment rise in the Weimar years?

Answer 29

. German youth who did not attend a highly selective gymnasium school (mostly from working-class families) were meant to leave school at 14 to begin an apprenticeship or employment . However, during the Weimar years, there were fewer apprenticeships available so more youth became unemployed who didn’t go to gymnasiums, hence the increase in youth turning to crime.

Question 30

How much did the rise in unemployment after 1924 affect German youth?

Answer 30

1925-26: 17% of unemployed were between 14-21 years old This was mainly due to the baby boom between 1900-1910, meaning they had become youths by the golden age and were seeking employment at a time when employers were reducing their workforces

Question 31

What were some of the attempts of the Weimar government to relieve the struggles of the German youths in terms of unemployment, was it successful and what were the consequences?

Answer 31

Benefits system provided some help for young people and day centres were established to help youths acquire the skills needed for work Overall, these attempts failed to compensate for the lack of employment opportunities as employers were reducing their workforces - this meant many young, working-class Germans living in big cities joined gangs to find comradeship, mutual support and a sense of adventure that was lacking in their lives

Question 32

Where were youth ‘cliques’ (gangs) mainly prevalent during the golden age?

Answer 32

Working-class districts of large German cities

Question 33

What were some of the names of youth cliques in Hamburg?

Answer 33

. Farmers’ Fear . Red Apaches . Death Defiers . Eagle’s claw The names reflected importance of projecting an image of aggressive masculinity and anti-social attitudes that were prevalent with the youth

Question 34

How could you join youth cliques in Hamburg and what did they do?

Answer 34

. Had to take an initiation such as stealing to show your willingness of breaking the law . Often used taverns as their meeting places as alcohol was important in their sub-culture Clearly these cliques were creating a bad image for the Weimar Republic as it tried to make people more free, but the youth used this to become law-breakers

Question 35

What was the state education system in German since 1871?

Answer 35

. Gymnasiums for those aiming at university . Realschule schools provided six years of schooling for children who would go on to pursue apprenticeships . There were very few elite private schools in Germany The structure of the equation system boasted some of the best in Europe

Question 36

What were some of the problems with the German state education system that the Weimar Republic had to address?

Answer 36

Divisions: . Along class lines, as students at gymnasiums were drawn from upper/middle class and Realschule school was for more of the working class . Along religious lines, as the Protestant and Catholic Church had heavy influence over religious education

Question 37

How did education reformers address some of the problems with the German state education system during the golden age?

Answer 37

Aimed to break down the divisions in the system and provide a non-sectarian education that would be free to all pupils - introduction of elementary schools, which all children would attend for first 4 years of education. Those who didn’t pass the entrance exam to gymnasium could stay in elementary school for another four years (fairness) This meant the education reforms for the youth were partially successful during the golden age

Question 38

What were some of the failures of education reformers in addressing the problems with the German state school system during the golden age?

Answer 38

. Didn’t succeed in removing the influence of churches from schools (the church was too powerful) - both Catholic and Protestant churches defended their rights to promote their insights on religious teachings through the state education system, supported by their respective political parties

Question 39

When did the idea of youth groups really become introduced into Germany?

Answer 39

In the 1890s but continued through the Weimar period

Question 40

What were the three main types of youth groups during the golden age?

Answer 40

. Wandervogel . Church youth groups . Political youth groups

Question 41

Who were the Wandervogel and what were their beliefs?

Answer 41

Group of mainly middle-class boys, had been around since 1896 and meant ‘wandering birds’ - non-political - highly nationalistic, with a very romanticised view of Germany’s past - hated industrialisation and big cities - spent lots of time hiking in forests, swimming in lakes and rivers etc (blood and soil/sticking to their roots) They rejected middle class social conventions and sought the freedom of wild spaces - it seems as though the golden age is bringing up a lot of socially defiant youths, who go against the social norms of German life.

Question 42

Did Protestant or Catholic Church have more youth groups?

Answer 42

. Catholics, had many different ones such as New Germany (created in 1919), aimed at middle-class youths . Protestant had fewer members in groups and didn’t give youth work that high a priority

Question 43

What were the aims of church youth groups?

Answer 43

Promote religious observance and instil respect for the church, family and school

Question 44

What was the main youth group of the SPD?

Answer 44

Social democratic youth movement created in 1925 - had most members of any political youth group in the Weimar period

Question 45

What was the main youth group of the KPD?

Answer 45

Young communist league founded in 1925 for children of KPD members (trying to keep generations voting for the KPD)

Question 46

What was the main youth group linked to the DNVP?

Answer 46

Bismarck Youth, founded in 1922 - reached membership of 42k by 1928 - mostly appealed to middle and upper class youths in Protestant areas but had strong working-class following in Berlin

Question 47

What was the main youth group linked to the NSDAP?

Answer 47

Hitler youth - it had a slow start in the 1920s, only getting a membership of around 13k by 1929 (excelled after with the depression years)

Question 48

How well-integrated were Jews in Germany during the Weimar years?

Answer 48

. Over half a million Jews living in Germany . 80% of Jews lived in cities and were well educated . Many felt more German than Jewish and were very patriotic . Many believed in assimilation, keeping their ethnic and cultural identity but becoming fully integrated into German society (they didn’t want to separate as a ‘Jewish community’, wanted to be involved in German society)

Question 49

What were some of the impressive achievements of Jews during the Weimar years?

Answer 49

. Jews represented only 1% of the total German population, but achieved a crazy amount of influence nonetheless . German Jews were important in politics and the press . German Jews were important in business and banking . German Jews were important in university and pretty much all aspect of Weimar culture . Huge influence in publishing of books and newspapers . Jewish musicians were at forefront of musical life . Jewish producers and directors dominated theatre and new medium of cinema Overall, considering Jews were a small proportion of the Germany population, they were definitely some of the most important people in the Weimar years

Question 50

How had German Jews already been well established in politics before 1914?

Answer 50

. Jewish publishing firms had a powerful influence in media . Jews prominent in SPD and KPD - Rosa Luxembourg, Hugo Hasse and Kurt Eisner all had Jewish backgrounds

Question 51

What were the main two Jewish-run newspapers in Germany?

Answer 51

. The Berliner Tageblatt . The Frankfurter Zeitung Both newspapers promoted liberal political views

Question 52

Who were two main German Jews who were involved in politics?

Answer 52

. Theodor Wolff (editor of Berliner Tageblatt) was driving force behind DDP . Walter Rathenau (foreign minister in 1922 and leading member of DDP)

Question 53

How successful were German Jews in industry and commerce and how did this become the idea of a scapegoat?

Answer 53

They achieved considerable wealth, but the extent of this was exaggerated by anti-Jewish propaganda to victimise them, even during the golden age not just during the depression years E.g the Rathenau family controlled huge electrical engineering firm AEG until 1927

Question 54

What did Jewish firms typically operate on?

Answer 54

. Coal-mining . Steelworks . Chemical industry in Silesia Jewish firms had little importance in western industrial areas of Rhineland or Ruhr

Question 55

How important were German Jews in banking in Germany?

Answer 55

. Jewish banking families such as Rothschilds owned around 50% of private banks in Germany . Jewish directors managed several major public banks However, this list of Jewish influence in banks is misleading, in 1920s: . Role of Jews in banking declined . Banks owned by Jews made up only 18% of banking sector in Germany, much lower proportion than before 1914

Question 56

How successful were German Jews in retailing?

Answer 56

Very active and successful, owning almost half of the firms involved in the cloth trade in Germany

Question 57

How successful were German Jews in professions?

Answer 57

Very successful, especially in law and medicine: . 16% of lawyers and 11% of doctors in Germany were Jews . Especially high numbers in Berlin - over half of the doctors in Berlin were Jewish in 1930

Question 58

How impactful were Jews on the academic life/success of Germany?

Answer 58

Very impactful: . Of the 38 Novel prizes awarded to people working in Germany up to 1938, 24% were given to Jews . Germany was world leading in physical sciences, especially with Albert Einstein and his work on quantum mechanics and his theory of relativity

Question 59

How did German Jews feel about assimilating and what is the evidence for this?

Answer 59

Most wanted to assimilate: . Thousands acted like germans in language, dress and lifestyle . Many married non-Jewish spouses and gave up religious observance or converted to Christianity

Question 60

What was the main factor limiting the extent that German Jews assimilated into Germany society in 1920s?

Answer 60

Many Germans still identified Jews as alien and even though many Jews wanted to assimilate, many felt they weren’t completely accepted by German society

Question 61

What is Jewish Bolshevism?

Answer 61

A term used by anti-Semite’s in the Weimar period to imply that Jews and communists were closely associated and represented a danger to German values

Question 62

How did the threat of Jewish Bolshevism become claimed to be apparent during the Weimar years?

Answer 62

With events such as the Spartacus uprising and breakaway regime of Kurt Eisner in Munich - Rosa Luxembourg and Eisner were both Jews who were also communists, fuelling the belief that Jewish Bolshevism was responsible for the struggling years of 1918-1924 of the Weimar Republic

Question 63

Which part of politics mainly adopted the idea of anti-semitism and Jewish Bolshevism?

Answer 63

Right-wings movements such as the Freikorps and the NSDAP (formed in 1920) as they argued that Jewish Bolshevism was a threat to the nation

Question 64

What was anti-semitism like during the golden age?

Answer 64

It was pushed to the fringes of political and public life, not very common - however, there was still fierce opposition to perceived Jewish influence, with frequent accusations of corruption and exploitation by Jewish bankers and businessmen

Question 65

How were attitudes towards German Jews affected by the hyperinflation crisis?

Answer 65

There was a surge of hostility towards Jewish financiers as the idea that Jews were profiting from the misery of ordinary Germans by taking out loans as ‘greedy businessmen’ was brought up, this anti-Semitic conspiracy had been long-standing and around for a long time

Question 66

What happened in the Barmat scandal of 1925?

Answer 66

The Barmat brothers were Jewish businessmen who had emigrated from Galicia in Poland just after WW1 - after a high profile court case, they were convicted of bribing public official to obtain loans from the Prussian state bank and national post office - the brothers were eventually sentenced to 11 months in jail This scandal provided evidence to fuel and justify anti-Semitic attacks