Germany’s International Position, 1924-28 Flashcards
Out of all the Weimar governments in 1919-33, what was the foreign policy of the republic always based on?
Revising the terms of the Treaty of Versailles as Germans believed it was a ‘diktat’ (dictated peace)
What were the divisions on how German government should revise the terms of the TOV?
Nationalist right: Germany should completely reject the treaty and rebuild military strength for a time when Germany could regain its lost territory and become a great independent power again
More pragmatic approach: policy of fulfilment (associated with Gustav Stresemann)
What did Stresemann’s policy of fulfilment involve?
. German cooperation with France, GB, USA, and Italy on issues such as reparations payments
. Removing allied occupation forces from German territory
What did Stresemann believe about the policy of fulfilment?
It would lead to more of a revision of the TOV than a confrontational approach
What years was Gustav Stresemann foreign minister?
1923-1929
What did Stresemann’s work as foreign minster help achieve in 1925?
French and Belgian forces left the Ruhr
What did Stresemann understand as the biggest problem to revising the TOV, and what did this mean he did?
French suspicion of Germany (harshest against Germany), so he concentrated in finding’s ways to reassure France of Germany’s peaceful intentions
What main way did Stresemann emphasise Germany’s peaceful intentions for the policy of fulfilment?
Locarno Pact of 1925
When was the Locarno Pact, where and what was it?
October 1925, Swiss city of Locarno
Conference
Why did the conference at Locarno take place?
Stresemann was anxious to restore Germany’s position internationally and avoid any hostile alliance between Britain and France, particularly as both had begun to feel threatened by Germany’s industrial recovery
Who attended the conference at Locarno?
France (unwillingly at first as they were suspicious of Stresemann’s intentions), USA, Britain and Italy
Russia didn’t attend
What did the discussions at the Locarno conference lead to?
The Rhineland Pact and Arbitration Treaties (collectively known as the Locarno pact)
When was the Locarno Pact finally signed?
In London on 1st December 1925
What were the agreements in the Rhineland Pact?
. Germany, France, Belgium promised to respect the western frontier as drawn up at Versailles in 1919 - this frontier was to be regarded as a fixed frontier and internationally guaranteed
. Germany agreed to keep its troops out of the Rhineland, as demanded at Versailles (being peaceful)
. Britain and Italy promised to aid Germany, France or Belgium if any of these countries were attacked by its neighbours
What were the agreements under the Arbitration Treaties?
. Germany agreed with France, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia that any dispute between them should be settled by a conciliation committee to mediate discussions
. France signed treaties of ‘mutual guarantee’ with Poland and Czechoslovakia - said that France would make sure Germany didn’t break the main agreement above
Was else did the Locarno pact agree aside from the Rhineland Pact and Arbitration Treaties?
. Any conflicts regarding the western borders should be referred to the LON
. France would not be permitted to cross into Germany should there be any dispute between Germany and Poland or Czechoslovakia
How could the Locarno Pact be seen as a major triumph for different countries?
. First time Germany had recognised the western border imposed at Versailles and accepted the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to France and Eupen-Malmédy to Belgium
. France now had a guarantee of support from Britain if there was another German attack
. Meant the 1923 occupation of the war couldn’t be repeated
. French agreed to withdraw forces occupying the Rhineland and completed this over 5 years without Stresemann needing to give assurances that Germany would disarm
. Although the Arbitration treaties offered some guarantees, it didn’t recognise eastern borders in the same way, allowing Germany to possibly further revise these borders in the future
How was it clear that France took their time withdrawing their forces occupying the Rhineland?
Postponed the withdrawal in January 1925 due to Germany refusing to comply with the disarmament obligations imposed at Versailles
However, over the next 5 years the withdrawal was complete with no more assurances needed for Stresemann and Germany to disarm
E.g the city of Cologne was evacuated by the French in 1926
How was Stresemann’s great triumph of the Locarno Pact celebrated?
. Germany accepted into the LON as a permanent member of the council
. Won the Nobel peace prize in 1926
How could Stresemann overall take pride in the Locarno Pact?
. Established Germany’s position as an equal partner in diplomatic negotiations with the 3 major Wstern Powers (France, Britain and USA)
. Strategically, he achieved a good deal with very little loss to Germany
Why did the German nationalist right attack Stresemann for the Locarno Pact?
They argued he as appeasing the allies and giving too much away, making Germany weak
How did the Germany and USSR end up taking very different political paths?
After both their individual Revolutions, in Russia in 1917 (Bolshevik Revolution) and in Germany in 1918 (November revolution)
When did Russia become the USSR?
1922
In what ways were Germany and USSR on very different political paths?
USSR:
. World’s first communist state
Germany:
. Adopted a democratic system of government
. Although there was a large communist party that campaigned for close links with the USSR, most Germans were apposed to the communist political system
What were the similarities in the post-WW1 situations of USSR and Germany?
. Both had been defeated at war and suffered punitive peace treaties
. Both felt that the existence of an independent Poland, supported by French guarantees, was a threat to their security. Poland contained large German and Russian minorities
. Both were treated as ‘outcast’ nations by the victorious powers and couldn’t join the LON
How did post-war similarities between Germany and USSR cause some Germans to feel?
See the advantages of closer working relationships with the USSR. Among these people included Walter Rathenau
What did Walter Rathenau do?
April 1922, negotiated the Treaty of Rapallo with Russia
What were the terms in the Treaty of Rapallo?
. Germany and Russia to resume trade and economic cooperation
. Diplomatic relations between these Germany and Russia restored
. All outstanding claims for compensation for war damage were dropped
. Germany was allowed to develop new weapons and train pilots in Russia, away from the scrutiny of the Allied powers
What didn’t get specifically mentioned in the Treaty of Rapallo but was implied?
Cooperation between Germany and Russia AGAINST Poland, clearly implied in the existence of the treaty
How was the Treaty of Rapallo important to Germany?
. Symbolic step away from post-war isolation
. Much improved relations with USSR, good relation to have when so many people are against you
Why were the allies, particularly France, angered by the Treaty of Rapallo?
It showed Germany’s intention to get around the disarmament terms of the TOV and its refusal to accept its eastern frontier with Poland
When was the Treaty of Rapallo renewed and what replaced it?
April 1926, Treaty of Berlin
What did the Berlin Treaty add to the Treaty of Rapallo?
Agreement that Germany would remain neutral if the USSR were to be involved in a war, as long as the USSR wasn’t the aggressor
When was the Treaty of Berlin signed?
A year after the Locarno Pact
What did the Treaty of Berlin show?
Despite Stresemann’s agreement to guarantee Germany’s western frontiers, he hadn’t abandoned his desire to secure a revision of Germany’s eastern frontiers
In order to achieve this revision, a close relationships between USSR and Germany that was achieved through the Treaties of Berlin and Rapallo was vital as the USSR would desire any border changes it didn’t agree with otherwise
When was the Kellog-Briand Pact signed and with whom?
1928, Germany signed it with France and the USA
Who were Frank Kellog and Aristide Brians and what did they do?
American Secretary of State and the foreign minister of France
Drew up an international agreement (Kellog-Briand Pact) under which states would agree voluntarily to renounce the use of offensive wars to resolve disputes
Who was one of the first states to sign the Kellog-Briand Pact?
Germany, then other countries followed
How did the Kellog-Briand Pact have symbolic importance?
As an international agreement to avoid war
What limited the effectiveness of the Kellog-Briand Pact?
It’s lack of any enforcement mechanism
What did Stresemann’s policy of fulfilment achieve by 1930?
The general German parties aim to remove foreign forces from German soil
Who were the most reluctant to withdraw occupying forces from Germany and why?
France, concerned for their own security and were suspicious of Germany’s sudden willingness to comply with the TOV
How did France cause the withdrawal of occupying forces to occur?
As a step-by-step process, involving compromise and concession on both sides between Germany and the country occupying
How did the Dawes Plan (1924) and Locarno Pact (1925) help withdrawal of occupying forces in Germany?
They showed German willingness to cooperate with the allies, meaning occupation forces were withdrawn from Zone 1 of the Rhineland in 1926
When did the Allies withdraw the IMCC from Germany?
1926
After 1926, what was was further progress on the end of allied occupation dependent on?
A final settlement of the reparations issue, coming in the form of the Young Plan which paved a clear way for the withdrawal of the remaining allied forces
When were the remaining allied forces withdrawn from Germany and how much quicker did it happen than expected?
Withdrawn from Zone 2 in 1929
Withdrawn from Zone 3 in 1930
All the withdrawal happened 5 years ahead of the schedule laid down in the TOV
When did Stresemann die and what was the significance of this?
1929, which was before the end of allied occupation was completed
Even though he died before it ended, his success was largely credited to his policies
What happened to the German army under the TOV?
. Limited to 100,000 men
. Not allowed to have an air force
. Prevented from having submarines and large battleships
What happened to the Rhineland under the TOV?
demilitarised, meaning German fortifications had to be dismantled and no German troops were allowed to be based in the area
How was German compliance with the TOV ensured?
. Allied forces occupied the Rhineland
. IMCC was established in Germany to monitor Germany’s disarmament
How did the disarmament clauses of the TOV make Germans feel?
Burning resentment as the allies were free to maintain their own armed forces
How did Germany get around the disarmament clauses?
. Treaty of Rapallo with Russia
Secret rearmament:
. Secret arrangements with other countries allowed Germany to build submarines in Spain and tanks and artillery in Sweden
What were the limitations of the secret rearmament?
Didn’t provide Germany with a fully operational air force, or the army with unlimited supplies of weapons
How did the secret rearmament help Germany?
Meant they didn’t fall behind other powers in technological development
What were the aims of General von Seeckt and how did he pursue these aims?
. Restore Germany’s military might
- worked towards a military alliance with Russia/USSR, aiming to destroy the newly independent Poland
