Social🗣 Flashcards
Define social psychology
Scientific investigation of how thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by actual, imagined or implied presence of others
Aims of social psychology
Measure thoughts/feelings scientifically
Effects of social and cognitive processes influencing actions
Explain behaviour to solve real world issues, interventions to promote desired feelings and behaviours
Scientific method
Observation, theory, hypothesis, research
Published in peer reviewed journals and replicated by other researchers
Experimental methods
Manipulate IV and observe DV
Lab, field, RCT
Less external validity, demand characteristics, difficult to assess long term
Establish cause and effect, manipulate variables, control experiment and extraneous variables, objectively assess
Non experimental methods
Correlation between variables (no manipulation)
Surveys, archival, qualitative
Explicit and implicit measurements
Explicit- within conscious control (self report, lab)
Implicit- unconsciously controlled, automotive (uses schemas)
Schemas
Mental representations about something, guides through social environment
If accessible, more likely to influence cognitive processes, behaviour
Implicit tasks assess reaction times
3 implicit measures
IAT, Priming, lexical decision task
Implicit association task- categorise stimuli to positive or negative
Congruent (quick response, associated together)
Priming- unconsciously present stimuli to increase accessibility of related cognitions (schemas) faster to link if primed
Lexical decision task- assess accessibility of cognitions. Judge whether letters form word. Target words reflect cognitions, reaction times
3 types of reviews (synthesis methods and findings)
NARRATIVE- current knowledge on general topic. Intro and themed subheadings, inclusions judged by researcher. No new analysis
SYSTEMATIC - well defined and precise research question. Intro, methods, results and discussion. Strict inclusion and exclusion criteria, could be reproduced. No new analysis
META-same as systematic but quantifies overall effect, magnitude. New analysis, strongest and reliable
Strengths and limitations of social psychology
+ real world interventions, rigorous methods
Random assignment to intervention and control, follow up. Report to CONSORT recommendations, still needs replication
- samples not representative of all cultures (WEIRD) should not generalise
Components of attitudes (single and tri)
Single component- unidimensional and focused on affect, general and enduring
Tricomponent- affective, behavioural and cognitive
Measuring attitudes (3 ways)
Self report measures (explicit) - interviews, focus groups, Likert scale, semantic differentials Covert measures (implicit)- behavioural measures, affective measures Psychological measures (implicit)-pupillary response, facial EMG
Relationship between implicit and explicit attitudes
Low correlation between implicit and explicit measures
Measure different memory constructs, if reflect same constructs ‘method variance’ is blamed e.g. extraneous variables
BEHAVIOURAL attitude formation
4 ways
MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT- more positive feelings to the more familiar. Rated students more in lectures as attractive
EVALUATIVE CONDITIONING- positive attitude from pairing neutral stimulus with something positive. Fictional drug ‘safer’ when paired with good images
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING-repeated association causes neutral stimulus to be positive/negative, over time
INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING-operant, positive consequence reinforced
COGNITIVE attitude formation
SELF PERCEPTION- form attitudes by observing our behaviour in context it occurs in, make inferences
Participants thought cartoons funnier when held pen in teeth (facial feedback hypothesis)and had less IAT implicit bias
Katz’s key functions of attributions
4
Formation as the needs attitudes serve, different motivations underlie them. Unlikely to be a single cause
Utilitarian/instrumental
Ego defence function
Value-expressive function
Knowledge/cognitive economy function
Katz’s key functions of attributions- utilitarian
Attitudes motivate to obtain rewards and avoid punishment e.g. positive attitude towards own football team
Katz’s key functions of attributions- Ego defence function
Defend self esteem, protect self image
Rate info consistent with belief as more positive e.g. I am a good student
If negative, discount the message and see source as stupid (source delegation)
Katz’s key functions of attributions- Value-expressive function
Express values integral to self-concept
Communicate who we are e.g. positive towards LGBTQ because you value equality
Katz’s key functions of attributions-Knowledge/cognitive economy function
Attitudes as ‘schemas’, organise info, predictability in world
Sort new information e,g, I like fruit so could try a new one
Yale approach to persuasion-Change attitudes though communication
WHO (source) says WHAT (message) to WHOM (audience)
Yale approach to persuasion- source characteristics
Attractive source- more persuasive
Credible source-more persuasive
Fear appeals
Strong fear appeals more persuasive however may backfire if threaten behavioural freedom which could lead to anger
Petty and Carioppo’s elaboration likelihood model (persuasion)
The two roles
Does audience have motivation and ability to elaborate on the message?
CENTRAL ROLE- effortful processing persuaded by central cues. Strength of argument determines persuasion
PERIPHERAL ROLE- automatic, persuaded by peripheral cues. Presence of cues determines persuasion
Individual differences affecting likelihood of persuasion
Audience characteristics
NEED FOR COGNITION- engaging in effortful cognition, strong arguments had larger effect if has need for cognition
SELF MONITORING- high self monitors more influenced by attractiveness
REGULATORY FOCUS-prefer things to be framed in a certain way e.g. preventative or promotion. Enhanced persuasion when matched
Elaboration likelihood model-Petty and Cacioppo
Factors determining engagement in central route
Motivation- if negative mood, high personal involvement
Ability- time to process message, enough cognitive resources, not distracted
Changing attitudes by changing behaviour: cognitive dissonance theory
Inconsistent cognitions causes unpleasant tension
If behave inconsistently with attitudes, reduce dissonance by changing attitude to match behaviour
2 ways cognitive dissonance is more likely to result in attitude change
Freedom of choice-believe experiment was interesting when paid more for it but had dissonance when paid less and has to lie
Engage in effort justification-rates embarrassing discussion more positive when more severe, justify large effort for small goal
Issues with making inferences about causation
Cannot be sure our thoughts cause actions, could be unconscious causes that have produced them both
Correlations that are cross sectional prone to consistency biases
Behaviour may cause intention
Third variable problem with longitudinal design-Stronger intention for testicular examination but low behavioural outcome
Manipulating intention study (self examination)
Persuasive audio message to self examine
Ask how much they intend to examine in next month
Ask if has performed it
-stronger notions to CHANGE ATTITUDE after message, less followed through due to intention behaviour gap
Explanations for intention behaviour gap
Intention viability- need abilities, resources and opportunities
Intention activation-conflicting goals deactivate intention (forgot)
Intention elaboration- fail to elaborate how will perform action
Meta analysis link between intentions and behaviour
47 studies
Medium to large intention gave small to medium change in behaviour
Polivy sweet wrappers
Monitoring behaviour by seeing how many sweet wrappers were on the table helped to achieve goals
Monitoring goal progress definition
Periodically note target behaviour and/or outcome and compare to desired outcome
Correlational vs experimental findings
on intentions and behaviour
- correlational studies suggest that behaviour is a function of intentions but problems with causation
- Experimental studies suggest that there is a gap between intentions and behaviour
Highly motivated diabetics and goal monitoring research
Highly motivated to monitor blood glucose
But only 20% got strips to test daily
Strong intentions but did not monitor progress, typically have ostrich problem
Monitoring goal progress and goal achievement research- exercise
and meta analysis
Intention to be exercise once a week
Self regulatory process (MONITOR GOAL PROGRESS and RESOND TO DISCREPANCIES)
Meta analysis- correlation between intentions and self regulatory processes
How monitoring goal progress can bridge action intention gap
Identify discrepancies-current place and goal
How to allocate effort- corrective action
Highly effective at getting people to monitor goal (frequency) -have to
confront progress e.g. Ostrich problem (avoid info about goal progress)
Types of progress monitoring
Monitor OUTCOMES- prompts corrective actions, more likely to influence outcomes than behaviour. More committed to goal
Monitor BEHAVIOUR (e.g., the length of a shower)- influence the performance of that behavior, may not influence outcome
=monitor what you want to achieve, greater effect on behaviour if measured and same for outcome (goal systems perspective)
Ways to make monitoring behaviour more effective
Make information public
Physically recorded
Health action process approach model
Intention (pre intentional phase) | Action planning (post intentional phase) Coping planning (post intentional phase) | Behaviour (post intentional phase)
What to take from the health action process model
Extends theory of planned behaviour
Proposes post intentional phase
Action and coping planning explains relationship between intention and behaviour (health behaviour)
Coping planning (post intentional phase)
Identifying barriers and how to deal with them e.g. not enough time
Anticipate personal risk situations
Action planning (post intentional phase)
Link goal directed behaviours to environmental cues
Specifying when, where, how to act
E.g. when to get out of bed
Helps identify salient cues that lead to action
Action planning research: tetanus
Students tetanus shot- high fear condition (repulsive descriptions) vs ACTION PLANNING condition (described details of how to get the shot)
8/9 who had shot were in action plan condition, achieved their intentions
Action and coping planning research: gamblers
Gamblers asked spending limit
Assessment only: described readiness to use strategies to stick to budget
Assessment and action: also when and how they would implement strategy, barriers to strategies
Problem gamblers in action and coping planning spent less than they intended
Actual spending was similar to low risk control
Zhang Meta analysis of actions and coping planning on behaviour
Small to Medium relationships between intention and (action and coping) planning
Small relationship between action (.09)and coping planning (0.1) on behaviour
Action and coping planning research: cardiac patients
Cardiac patients intending to exercise
Action planning: when/how to exercise
Coping planning: how to cope with setbacks
2months after- action and coping planning does not explain behaviour
4months-COPING planning more instrumental later to maintain but ACTION planning useful for getting started
Traits
Higher and lower order
Higher order- OCEAN/HEXACO believed to capture most of human behaviour. Broad bandwidth and predicts wider consequences
Lower order-optimism, procrastination, perfectionistic strivings and concerns. More specific and predictive, easier to interpret correlation between these traits and outcomes
Procrastination
Measured as a disposition, unnecessary and voluntary delay in start or completion of important tasks. Measured on general procrastination scale
+ impulsivity, neuroticism
- self efficacy, conscientiousness
Procrastination link to cardiovascular disease, hypertension
Predicted by procrastination (NOT conscientiousness): poor health behaviours and high stress
For 1 point increase of procrastination (5 point scale) risk increased by 63%
Dark and light triad traits
DARK- narcissism, machiavellianism, psychopathy
LIGHT- humanism (value dignity and worth of people)
kantianism (treat people as ends unto themselves)
faith in humanity (fundamental goodness of others)
(Loving and beneficent orientation towards others)
Predictive power of Triads
Test nomological networks. Assessed predictive ability above honesty/humility from HEXACO and agreeableness from big 5
-0.48 correlation between light and dark triads, so not complete opposites
Most people are more light triad inclined, extreme malevolence rare
Dark triad findings
Younger, male motivated by power and sex
Less life satisfaction, empathy and less belief that others are good. Selfish and immature
But creative, brave and good leaders
Light triad findings
Older, female, spiritual, believe others are good with low childhood unpredictability
But weaker motives for achievement, interpersonal guilt and excessive trust could lead to exploitation
Light triad scale issues
Self report- social desirability, inclined to agree you are ‘good’. Questions may depend on situation
Samples- cultural limitations on what is valued
Procrastination developmental influences
Children with overly critical demanding parents may learn to avoid tasks rather than risk failure, fear they will respond to self characteristics harshly
Cross sectional study: parenting and procrastination
Maternal authoritative/authoritarian = More self worth which predicted LESS procrastination for females
Paternal authoritative/authoritarian not associated with self worth but relates directly to LESS procrastination
No significant relationship between parenting style and self worth or procrastination in sons
Ways of studying genetics
Genotype-inherited potential
Phenotype-expression of genotype in environment
Heritability- proportion of phenotypic variance in sample explained by genetic factors
Twin studies
Genetic influences of procrastination-impulsivity
Procrastination- byproduct of impulsivity through evolution. Suddenly strive for food (hunter gatherer), procrastination may lead to sudden impulsivity
Traits would be heritable and share same genetic variation related to goal management
Heritability of procrastination (impulsivity)
Twin study- 46% heritable
Distinguishable from impulsivity at phenotypic level not genotypic (traits expressed differently, variations from goal management abilities)
Procrastination may LEAD to impulsivity
Genetic influences of procrastination-executive functions
Twin study, self report
Procrastination related to worse general EF ability at phenotypic and genotypic level
More due to genetic influences
William James personality stability
Plasticity hypothesis- personality is changeable
PLASTER hypothesis- (James supported from age 20-30) personality is enduring
Factors that promote personality stability
Life experiences-environment and social pressures
Genetic factors- inherent tendencies on thought and behaviour, passed on
Uncertain if changes are due to maturation or life experiences
Personality stability
The Big 5 in relation to age and life events over 3 years
Not huge personality changes but occurred when directly related to life events e.g. less extraversion after marriage
Cross sectional data shows conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness can change across age
Longitudinal stability of personality: genetic vs environmental
Longitudinal stability of personality is low in childhood but increases into adulthood
Genetic and environmental influences more stability with age
Genetic influences on stability are there from the beginning, by midlife the influence switches to environment
Do personality characteristics predict life outcomes?
The Life Outcomes Of Personality Replication project
Only 36% of studies were replicated in 78 trait-outcome associations previously (experimental psychology)
LOOPR project successfully replicated 87% of effects (personality research)
Supports accuracy of current literature on big 5 and outcomes but still not 100%
Ways to study aggression
4 ways
Analogues of behaviour- Bobo doll
Signals of intention- willingness to use aggression in experimental setting
Ratings- self report, reports by others
Indirect- psychological
Theoretical approaches to aggression: biological and social
Biological- predisposed go aggression, beneficial to individual and species
Social- contextual, may contain biological elements
Psychodynamic theory of aggression
Conflict of eros(love) and Thanatos (destruction)
Thanatos builds and must be released, displaced outwards
May be in healthy ways (Neo-Freudian)
Ethological theory of aggression
Aggression is functional, elicited by specific environmental cues (releasers) actual violence within a species prevented by appeasement/subordination. Humans lack this and aggress too easily
Evolutionary theory of aggression
Spread genes to next generation, aggression beneficial for survival e.g. aggression of mothers to protect young, related to territory or resources
Aggression theories limitations
Instincts can’t be measured or studied
Approaches supported by observational studies
Not so useful for prevention
Relies on circular logic, causal connections
Limited understanding of how aggression is maintained
Social/biosocial theory of aggression
3 theories
Frustration aggression hypothesis- aggression caused by frustration e.g. job loss BUT loose definition, too simplistic, cannot predict which behaviours are frustrating
Excitation transfer- aggression is learnt, arousal is displaced and interpreted as an appropriate response
Social learning theory- operant conditioning, models show aggression gets rewarded and is socially acceptable (instrumental aggression) vicarious learning (Bobo doll more aggressive in person)
Personality theory of aggression
Aggression develops early, those aggressive at age 8 are likely to be aggressive later on
May be a personality trait
Social theory of aggression: individual differences
Entitled Narcissists with high self esteem may be prone to aggression
Attachment insecurity more common to offenders
Type A personality more conflict with peers, be aggressive and abuse children but be abused themselves
Social theory of aggression: gender and hormones
Socialisation of gender, men tend to be more aggressive but women more indirectly
Transitioning transsexuals- increased aggression when transitioning from female to male
May be other important hormones, can not establish cause and effects
Social theory of aggression: situational variables
Catharsis
Catharsis- let out emotions and feel better but research shows causes more aggression later
Social theory of aggression:situational variables
Alcohol
Compromises cortical control, increases activity in primitive areas. More disinhibition
With social pressure, gave more shocks to confederate on alcohol.
May be placebo and priming effects
Social theory of aggression:situational variables
Disinhibition, deindividuation, dehumanisation
Disinhibition-usual restraint from social forces is reduced
Deindividuated- unidentifiable, unlikely to face consequences
Dehumanisation-cannot see pain suffered by victim
Social theory of aggression:situational variables
Heat and crowding
Heat-linked to aggression but not linear
Crowding- leads to fighting in animals, population density linked to crime rates but may be SES
General aggression model
Interplay between personal and situational variables
Input- person or situation
3 internal states- cognition, affect and arousal
Appraisal- thoughtful, impulsive
Action- social encounter
Male offenders: beliefs that bolster violence correlated with actual violence
Societal influences of aggression- social disadvantage
Relative deprivation-sense of having less than entitled to
Homicide higher in young urban poor minority males
Absence of pro social norms
However may be different types of aggression for advantaged people
Societal influences of aggression- gender and race
Women more aggressive as gender roles change, violent offending increased (liberal, secular and modern)
Males more likely to be both offenders and victims, blacks much more likely to be victims and offenders
Doesn’t explain why
Culture of honour and aggression
Endorse male violence to address threats to reputation e.g. female infidelity
Adolescents in Jordan-Patriarchal and collectivist more accepting of honour killings along with poorer, traditional backgrounds. Approval strongest with males with harsh parental discipline, value female chasity
Subculture of violence and mass media of aggression
Rewarded for violence and sanctions for non compliance
Machismo valued in Latin American families
More violent after watching violent film but had higher levels to begin with. Mass media desensitises, aggressors portrayed as heroes, thinking about an act can facilitate it, primed
Institutionalised aggression
War-more war like sports in these societies, severe punishment, higher homicide rates
Role of state- warfare possible with supporting structures involving beliefs and emotions, can be legitimised
Role of person-obedience to authority, agentic state (Milgram)
Sexual aggression: pornography
And experiment
Non violent porn may lead to aggression via excitation transfer but requires frustration
Desensitises males to aggression against women, women ‘enjoying’ the acts reinforced rape myths BUT may be predisposed
Those exposed to violent porn and irritated became more callous and viewed rape tolerantly, lenient on prison sentences
metoo attitudes
Men expressed less positivity to the campaign, see as more harmful and less beneficial
Higher rape myth acceptance and lower feminist identification
Intimate partner violence
Assault with intent to injure in 3/10 US married couples
Women slightly more likely to use physical aggression against partners in heterosexual relationships but do less harm
1/4 of victims of homicide killer was spouse
More female perpetrators in modern liberal societies, husband bettering wife seen as most violent and victim blamed male battering male
Causes of intimate partner violence
Learned patterns of aggression across generations Proximity of family members Stresses Traditional notions of power Alcohol
Intimate partner violence and football
Increase intimate partner violence during football events but correlation but causation and factors of alcohol, other sporting events and not isolated incidents
Other offending increases too
Counterfactual thoughts
Mental simulations of possible outcomes that did not happen but imagined as occurred e.g. if I got a coffee I could have caught the train
Dissatisfied with current outcome so create fantasy world
Adaptive function to make good outcomes so thoughts are common
Upward and downward Counterfactuals
Upward-think about better possible outcomes ‘if only’
Downward-think about worse possible outcomes ‘at least’
Medallist counterfactuals
Silver-upward Counterfactual, highlight corrective actions to change behaviour in future to avoid similar negative events
Bronze-downward Counterfactual, provide immediate relief from threatening thoughts, benefits of things not going as planned
Self motive model of counterfactual direction (functional model)
‘What might have been’ influence emotional states, motivation to achieve alternative reality. Affective coping and preparative coping
Upward- negative affect, SELF IMPROVEMENT for future behaviour (if controllable and repeatable)
Downward-positive affect, immediate SELF ENHANCEMENT FUNCTION positive affect (uncontrollable and non repeatable)
Functional theory of counterfactual thinking (problem solving)
If primary function of counterfactuals is problem solving, counterfactual thinking should be activated by problems and evoke behaviours to solve them
Assumes successful behaviour regulation is only functional outcome
BUT has to be opportunity to improves and is under person’s control
Upward counterfactuals
Controllable and uncontrollable
Controllable-(more likely) identify what can be modified for better future. Functional and motivating
Uncontrollable-identify aspects that cannot be modified for better outcomes, dysfunctional and promotes rumination
Functional theory of counterfactual thinking
Two pathways: how counterfactuals influence behaviour
Content SPECIFIC pathway- Specific behaviour will lead to specific outcome, causal inferences, form intention
Content NEUTRAL pathway-Changing behaviour can help in other unrelated situations too. Generalised effect of motivation and control
Assimilation and contrast counterfactuals
ASSIMILATE-identify with
upward- I can still get…
Downward- I could have done worse… (Motivation, wake up call)
CONTRAST-distance self
Upward-if only I had…(Motivation)
Downward- at least I didn’t…(no motivation, Pangloss )
Pangloss effect
Downward counterfactuals
Contrast- denies room for improvement, no motivation to change
Comfort from not having worse alternative
Wake up call
Downward assimilative
Emotionally identify with worse outcomes which could have happened
Motivation to take action on specific intentions
Downward counterfactual study:student grades
Contrast- students evaluate grade to worst grade imaginable
Assimilation-vividly imagine receiving the worst grade possible
When attention is focused on positive information, experience positive effect and low motivation to change
Negative effect when focus on negative information, high motivation to change
Additive and subtractive counterfactuals
ADDITIVE- add for desired outcome
remembered when similar instance occurs, but implementing it may not be as strong. Often occurs with unexpected failure
SUBTRACTIVE- what could removed for desired outcome (won’t pay as much) with unexpected success. Easier to implement changes
Procrastination definition
Short term mood regulation
Tasks that are boring, frustrating, unpleasant and lack meaning and cause a negative mood so avoid for short term mood repair
Procrastination and counterfactuals study
Relationship of procrastination to counterfactuals in response to anxiety
2 anxiety scenarios: general (certain fire) and delay specific (uncertain cancer risk)Measure anxiety, procrastination and self esteem
-conditions had equal anxiety
-chronic procrastinators more downward counterfactuals and fewer upward (supports mood repair hypothesis). Mood and self enhancement but no preparations for future, Pangloss effect
Maladaptive perfectionism
High upward counterfactuals after failure and lower motivation to goal
Counterfactuals automacity
Counterfactuals are automatic but processing and suppressing requires cognitive effort
Inaction better remembered than action, more possible alternatives for what you SHOULD have done
Why are upward counterfactuals comfortable
More likely to focus on controllable aspects, retrospective perception of control which is comfortable
Less control is stressful
Seen as more functional
Upward counterfactuals not always functional: depression
Participants (non depressed, mild, severe) recall negative, repeatable, academic event
Rated mood and degree of control over event
Coded for upward/downward, controllability, if attainable, if self blame
Severe- counterfactuals more uncontrollable, less reasonable and more self blame. Reinforces helplessness
Downward counterfactuals can be functional
Improves affect short term shield self from self criticism and threatening thought, functional
Restore mood
Feel like there was nothing that could have done if uncontrollable (affective but not behaviour)
Self compassion
Associated with healthy emotion regulation
Non defensive responses
Positive emotions and wellbeing
Motivated to make changes and improvements
Emotion regulation
Automatic and controlled processes initiate, maintain and modify the occurrence, intensity and duration of states
Down regulation of negative states or up regulation of positive states
Just world beliefs (individual differences)
Less negative emotions to negative outcomes
Believe world has fair rules, procedures and outcomes
Counterfactuals Brexit research: downward counterfactuals adaptive function
Remain voters: Read description of events up to vote, emphasised close result
Randomly assigned to counterfactual conditions vs neutral condition
Most believed was no other opportunity to do things differently, not within personal control
-mostly uncontrollable upper counterfactuals (lower wellbeing)
-Self compassion, just world beliefs (individual difference) = DOWNWARD counterfactuals regulate negative mood when thinking of Brexit (out of their control, one-off event)
Reference values
What to compare to
Desired target (future)
Your past
Others
Correlation amounts-large
- 30 medium
0. 50 large
Evidence for relationship between implicit and explicit attitudes
No sig correlation and structural modelling indicated implicit and explicit are related but distinct constructs
Higher correlation between implicit and explicit when extraneous differences in two measures were reduced
Upward counterfactuals and control
Upwards counterfactuals more likely to focus on controllable aspects of events and enchants retrospective perceptions of control
Can restore control for less depressed people
More depressed people have less of control perceptions, generate more uncontrollable, less reasonable counterfactuals
