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YEAR 2 Semester 1👩🏼‍🎓 > Developmental👶🏽 > Flashcards

Developmental👶🏽 Flashcards

1
Q

Microgenetic studies

A

Changes examined as they occur

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2
Q

Randomised controlled trials

A

Test if causality has an effect

Test baseline
Randomly assign to control or intervention
Retest after intervention to see if significant improvement

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3
Q

How do we live differently from animals

A

Human culture

High cooperation

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4
Q

Ratchet effect and ontogenetics

A

Culture passed to next generation who build and improve it

New traits from Ontogenetics (developmental processes)
Small changes have large phenotype effects

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5
Q

Shared intentionality

A

Ancient ancestors had perception
Inherited variation and natural selection led to earlier social skills

(Joint and collective intentionality)

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6
Q

Joint and collective intentionality

A

Joint- 9 months
Share a joint goal and collaborate, know own and other’s role

Collective-3 years
Group level perspective on how things should be done in culture

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7
Q

3 process making humans unique (Tomasello)

Three s’s

A

Genetically inherited capacity for SHARED INTENTIONALITY

Rich SOCIOCULTURAL ENVIRONMENT (interactions with others)

SELF REGULATION

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8
Q

Natural pedagogy theory

A

Detect communication is for them e.g. infant directed eye contact, motherese speeds up cultural learning

Generate new info, GENERALISABLE

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9
Q

Heye’s cognitive gadgets

A

PROSOCIAL
Attentional BIASES to faces and voices
Central PROCESSORS (executive function)

-use tools to acquire further skills, cultural evolution

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10
Q

Newborn preferences

A

In Utero: prefer sound and smell of caregiver

Motherese (activates prefrontal cortex), prefer biological movement and visual properties of faces

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11
Q

Interactive specialisation and cortical specialisation

A

(Interactive specialisation) biases to voices, face like stimuli AND brain architecture = attend to social environment (cortical specialisation)

Explains how cortices have specialist regions without being hard wired from the start
Possible evolutionary advantage of cooperative breeding

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12
Q

changes in parents with new baby

A

Mothers- brain changes perinatal period, promote caregiving, highly attuned to infant’s needs. Physiological and behavioural synchrony (oxytocin and prolactin)

Fathers- reduced testosterone

All attracted to babies, look adorable

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13
Q

Dyadic and triadic exchanges

A

Dyadic- 2-4 months
Interaction between one person and another
Caregivers reply to vocalisations and involuntary emissions as convo

Triadic- from 6 months
Include the world and people by bringing in objects, include gestures. joint attention and intentionality from 9 months, pointing)

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14
Q

Adaptive teaching from parents

A

Selectively respond to infant’s most adult like communication

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15
Q

Primary intersubjectivity

A

Infant and caregiver respond to each other’s actions, aware of each other, reassurance

Peekaboo across cultures, predictable and clear reversible role structure ( I and you)

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16
Q

Still face paradigm (faces get a response)

A

Adult holds face still to vocalisation
5 months-vocalisation size linked to language comprehension at 13 months

Expected response stopped so sudden increase in behaviour
Learn social value of vocalisations , precursor to words

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17
Q

Language key words

A

Phonology-sounds
Word forms-lexical, our vocabulary
Grammatical forms-(combine words in different ways to combine meanings)
syntax- (organise words into structures)
Morphology- structure of words, suffixes etc
Prosodic forms- intonation
Semantics- meanings used in the world
Pragmatics-relation to audience and context

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18
Q

Prosody and categorical perception in babies

A

Prosody (rhythm)helps distinguish languages
Easier to be bilingual if languages differ more in prosody

Categorical perception- Perceive different speech sounds from 1 month
High amplitude sucking when notices change between sounds

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19
Q

Phones, phonemes and tonal phonemes

A

Phones- different sounds in language e.g. the p in pin differs from p in spin but wouldn’t change the meaning of the word

Phonemes- when different phones CHANGE THE MEANING of words. Smallest unit of sound

Tonal phonemes- Changing tone of word alters meaning e.g. Bear and bear

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20
Q

Infants discriminating phonemes

A

Born perceive all sounds in all languages

Experience = tune into phonemic contrasts in their language and tune out those that are not

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21
Q

Conditioned head turning and phonemes experiment

How to maintain perception of foreign phonemes

A

Taught to turn head when hears certain sounds, rewarded
By 10 months cannot distinguish sound, wont turn head
TO MAINTAIN:
- small exposure to foreign language
-must experience this in real world interaction

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22
Q

Timeline of baby’s sounds

A

Birth- crying
2-4 months- cooing laughter
4-7 months- squeals, yells, vowels
7 months- reduplicated babbling (bababa)
10 months- babbling sounds of native language
1 year- first words
2 year- two words

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23
Q

Vocal tract development

A

Range of vocalisations limited to size and placement of tongue in relation to vocal cavity
Neuromuscular limits on tongue movements

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24
Q

Gaze following (triadic)

A

18 months- check where someone look to figure out meaning of a new word (what was being referred to)

Caregiver gaze directs infant to interesting events
Aware someone follows their attention

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25
Q

Joint attention (triadic)

A

9 months- 2 or more people attend to something, mutually aware

Time spent here predicts later word learning

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26
Q

Pointing (triadic)

A

Initiate joint attention between 9-14 months
Index finger pointing predicts vocab learning
imperatively, declaratively, interrogatively

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27
Q

Pointing stages

A

Perlocutionary- effect on listener unintentionally

Illocutionary stage- intentionally direct others to objects and events

Locutionary stage-propose things verbally

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28
Q

Gaze coordination

A

Vocalising AND looking
11 month olds above chance in coordinating vocalisations and gestures with gaze, likely intentional
Elicit response from caregiver (response to intentional vocalisations is best predictor of word use)

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29
Q

How to parents treat baby’s emissions?

A

Parents treat infant’s acts as intentional e.g. hiccup and respond in rewarding way
May help communication emerge

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30
Q

Words learnt and ages

A

Slow until learnt 50-100 words
Accelerates until 8-10 when learn 12 words a day

Children looked to correct picture even when hear first part of word only

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31
Q

How do children speak their language

A

Register distributional features of language
Construct utterance meaning pairs
Learn to talk in environment they can make sense of

Infants can discriminate sounds from different phonemes but not from same phoneme class

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32
Q

Errors in speech

A

Can perceive but not produce certain sounds

Underextensions or overextensions (children create new forms based on what they’ve heard not just reproduce )

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33
Q

Gavagi problem

A

Hard to tell where children have learnt a word’s meaning
Word learning needs to be controlled to avoid this

(Cannot determine which possible meaning a word means)

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34
Q

Solutions to Gavagi problems

A

Cognitive constraints- reason by exclusion, it is what you don’t know
Syntactic bootstrapping- use known words and structure to figure out others
Association- Child thinks word is what has their attention BUT doesn’t explain how abstract words are acquired: children direct attention away from salient toys to see what is being referred to

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35
Q

Social pragmatic theory

A

Learn words easily as their world is routine, engage in:

  • Intention reading (learn how words function by figuring out what other person intends to communicate)
  • Joint attention
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36
Q

Cultures and child directed speech

A

Cultures with less child directed speech still equal to western ones, language learnt roughly same age (difficult to know if differences due to language itself or maternal style of talk)

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37
Q

How are non regular plurals learnt

A

Discover inflection, errors of omission
Over apply inflection (mouses)
Balance applying inflections and remember exceptions

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38
Q

How to test syntactic development

A

Novel words

Who did what to whom? (Agent-patient relations)

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39
Q

Chomsky grammatical development

And negative

A

Inbuilt grammar
Children cannot learn through copying due to poverty of stimulus, and no negative evidence (few corrections) when incorrect = hardwire to grammar

No account of what innate knowledge makes up or how it is used to learn specific language

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40
Q

Constructivist grammatical development

And negative

A

Grammar learnable and social context important, no issue with poverty or negative evidence

Not clear how mechanisms interact to allow children to produce language from previous language heard

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41
Q

Statistical learning theory of language

A

Learn grammatical structures based on similarity to other structures experienced before

Use models- ‘colourless green ideas sleep furiously’never occurred but is grammatical

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42
Q

Morris’ semiotic triangle

A

Real world - signs- speaker/listener

Developing turn taking, Pragmatics
Linguistic forms related to real world, users and to each other

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43
Q

What do pragmatics involve

A

Tuning into other’s state and context, common ground built up
Understanding intentions and inferences about what someone meant
Making communicative moves in sequence in a conversation
Steady information flow

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44
Q

How to acquire pragmatics (3 ways)

A

Tune into context relevant to current goal find common ground between speakers

Understand communicative intentions, make inferences

Communicate in sequence (topic-comment)

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45
Q

Tune into context relevant to current goal find common ground between speakers

Pragmatics research: updating the adult

A

When noticed parent was disengaged from toy being hidden, updated them by gesturing or naming the toy

  • respond to requests for clarification and overhearing the repair
  • more effective with specific feedback NOT training in listener role
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46
Q

Effect of array complexity

A

2 years- only learn contrasts between group amounts when obvious e.g. 4 vs 2

4 years- General heuristic

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47
Q

Understand communicative intentions, make inferences

Pragmatic studies: intentions

A

18 months- (adults says ooops vs there we go) child imitates incomplete/intentional actions
Repairs communicative attempts if adult fails to understand

5 years query why someone said something that doesn’t fit the predictive model of language (horse WITH ears) Gricean reasoning

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48
Q

What age do have adult’s pitch and duration

A

By 7-8 have grasped more adult way of varying duration and pitch

Link what is currently said to the speaker’s model of the world, follow topic-comment

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49
Q

Language ability and what it predicts

A

Age 4 ability predicts later educational achievement
May predict later mental health but depends on if child or parent is asked

Knowledge based economy: language is a public health concern

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50
Q

Bronfenbrenner

A

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY-Different levels of environmental influence: parents, community and wider politics
Parent child relationship not in a vacuum

Interacting with peers provides different learning opportunities than adults

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51
Q

Contingent talk

A

Tune in and acknowledge what child is interested in

Caregiver contingent talk seen across all SES parents

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52
Q

Social gradients and effects in language

A

Social gradient emerges in infancy
higher SES= higher vocab, accuracy and processing speed
Lower classes exposed in different ways
SES also affects access to services, stereotypes

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53
Q

BPS code of ethics and interventions

A

Respect- all humans need it regardless of SES

Social responsibility-support and respect dignity and integrity and contribute to common good

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54
Q

Types of intervention

A

Primary- target high risk groups before delays are detected
Secondary- target at risk and showing it
Tertiary- who it persists in already, improve quality of life

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55
Q

Making early parenting interventions work

A

Check which factors make lasting difference
Identify most plausible and acceptable opportunities for change (qualitative, correlation, lab, pilot interventions that are feasbile
Test causal relation with child outcomes, efficacy and effectiveness

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56
Q

Contingent talk RCT

A

Caregiver and child (socially diverse) Randomly assigned to contingent talk or control
Measure baseline and post intervention
Short visit and 10 minute video had modest but meaningful effect on way parents talked
Lower SES infant vocab increased but no effect for high SES
Effect does not last to 24 months

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57
Q

Improving language outcomes

A

Maximum clinical and educational impact with limited resources
Those with risk factors who have difficulty accessing interventions
Models gave potential to widen inequalities if ‘responsive only’
Find predictors that are multiple (open to change)

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58
Q

Ways of becoming bilingual (2)

A

Simultaneously- each parent speaks different language
Sequentially- one language at home, another at school

Depends on social contexts

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59
Q

Bilingual children

A

High individual differences
Some delays e.g. to over regularise past tense for slightly longer
Different strategies to learn language (few studies on trilingual)
Evidence for and against improved cognition but different from needing to adapt
Difficult to do controlled studies (SES, age of acquisition etc)

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60
Q

Atypical language development types(4)

A

Sensory impairment e.g. hearing loss
Difficulty producing speech e.g. cleft palate
Delays from learning disability e,g. Downs
Difficulty with social communication (Pragmatics) e.g, autism

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61
Q

DLD (Developmental language disorder)

A

Language impairment not explained by hearing loss or developmental disorders/brain injury
Often have other difficulties like ADHD making investigation and support difficult
Affects around 1 in 15

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62
Q

SCD (social communication pragmatic disorder)

A

DLD when only Pragmatics are affected

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63
Q

Deafness types (3)

A

Sensorineural deafness- hearing loss inner ear, cochlea isn’t working

Auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder- sounds received by cochlea but disrupted when travel to the brain

Conductive deafness- sound can’t pass through to inner ear. Often wax in outer ear or fluid in middle. Common in children, usually temporary

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64
Q

Cochlea implants

A

Convert sound into electrical signals, send to auditory nerve
Doesn’t completely fix hearing
Deaf communities may reject, child would have different experience to deaf parents

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65
Q

Consequences of language delay

A

Delays in social cognition, Pragmatics

Not strong support for families in UK

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66
Q

Approaches to teaching reading (2)

A

Phonics- sounds that letters make are taught explicitly (scientific consensus)

Whole language approach-child discovers meaning through literacy rich experiences

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67
Q

Goal of teaching reading

A

Learn to associate arbitrary visual symbols with meaning
Understand what has been read
Support vocab and oral language development, help readers deploy strategies to engage with text

Insight that graphemes represent phonemes does not come naturally, must be taught explicitly

68
Q

The simple view of reading

A

Decoding + linguistic comprehension = reading comprehension (use reading to learn)

69
Q

Writing systems (3)

A

ALPHABETIC- symbols represent individual sounds or phonemes e.g. English
SYLLABIC- symbols represent syllables e.g. Japanese
MORPHOPHONETIC- symbols represent elements of both meaning and sound

70
Q

Variation in orthographic depths

A

Transparency in which graphemes represent phonemes (deep lags behind shallow children)

Shallow- consistent relationship between graphemes and phonemes e.g. Finnish
Deep orthographies- inconsistent relationship between graphemes and phonemes e.g. English

71
Q

Children’s initial hypotheses about symbols

How they overcome it

A

Don’t naturally get that symbols represent sounds, must be taught:

Segment phonemes and identify their initial phonemes
Recognise graphic symbols that correspond to key sounds in transfer task
Rely on phonological awareness

72
Q

Phases of learning the alphabet (3)

A

Initial- no alphabetic insight, guessing

Partial alphabetic-simple decoding

Full alphabetic-decode unfamiliar printed words

73
Q

Cognitive processes of becoming a skilled reader

A

Experience, link letters and sounds. Reliance on alphabetic coding decreases

  • put spelling into its sounds and to meaning
  • gain the meaning directly from spelling
74
Q

Orthographic learning

A

Depends on exposure

Learn word’s meaning from print, knowledge about the writing system

75
Q

Deafness language delays or no language delays

A

Identified through screening

95% deaf infants have hearing parents causing language delay, may struggle to support joint attention
If have deaf parents is no language delay (use signing and look to parents more)

76
Q

Dorsal and ventral streams for reading

A

Dorsal first, then ventral with increased reading ability

Areas used for vision, speech and language all used for reading

77
Q

Discrimination challenge (reading)

A

Precise recognition mechanism for words with neighbours e.g. face and fact

78
Q

Stems and affixes

A

Stem- reoccur in words with similar meanings e.g. clean and cleanliness
Affixes-later meanings of stems in predictable ways e.g UNhook

Learning these help children interpret or produce new words

79
Q

Lexical tuning

A

Exposure to print may interact with orthography and shape child’s word recognition system

80
Q

Matthew effect

A

Differences in exposure (to reading) have cumulative effects over time

81
Q

Rewarding children for reading

A

May have negative impact on motivation, believe has no intrinsic value long term

82
Q

Situation model

A

Linked info in text to background knowledge

Meaning emerges from and builds dynamically, text represented beyond what it stated itself (verbatim)

83
Q

Cohesive devices and their use

A

Anaphors- refer to earlier things
Connectives- because

Info integrated (situation model). Background knowledge, Coherence depends on interest, motivation and quality of text

84
Q

It is difficult to determine whether individual differences in Pragmatics reflect differences in:

A

Process of inference
Knowledge
Awareness of when to make inference

85
Q

Comprehension of children

A

Ability to make inferences in oral language predicts reading comprehension
Children can evaluate own comprehension to identify when to repair understanding
At 9 have expectations on what should come next in discourse
Can be ‘good enough’

86
Q

Training children to make inferences

A

Not a transferrable effect, training working memory may help

87
Q

Timeline of peer interactions

A

Infancy-touch other infants, cry in response
1-2 friendly with other babies, pretend play
3- coordinated, role play, prefer peers
7- stable gender preferences
11- expect deeper friendships, emotional support
13+ cross gender relationships

88
Q

Development of coordinated play: Types of play

A

Parallel play-children play same activity but individually
Parallel social play- aware both play same activity
Integrated social play- cooperating, play together

89
Q

Coordinated play

A

Species specific, when partner stops playing, child attempts to re-engage them
Birds eye view of interactional scenarios: others have to play their part
3 years-more coordinated play, roles and prefer peers to adults

90
Q

3 ways peers influence children

A 
Modelling behaviour 
Reinforcing behaviour (positive and negative)
Benchmark for comparison (affects self esteem)
91
Q

Sociometric techniques in status study

A

Categorised according to popularity in classroom
Nominate 3 children they like and don’t like. Scored as:
Popular, controversial (many good and bad), average (some good some bad), rejected
Rejected subtypes: aggressive (poor self control) non aggressive (withdrawn)

92
Q

Children and peer acceptance importance

A

Popularity is important
Status can affect happiness, development and life outcomes
Peer acceptance may be helped by close friendships
Status stable over time

93
Q

Sociometric status study:

What affects peer status (4)

A

Temperament (sociability etc)
Past experiences (previous successes)
Physical appearance (attractiveness etc)
Social skills

94
Q

Dodge social interaction study

Peer group entry

A

Task 1-video of peer group entry OR peer provocation
Task 2- assessed on joining two children playing OR provoked by peer
Watching social interaction predicted ability on joining children playing

95
Q

Peer acceptance: influence from parents and friends

A

Parents first partners to interact with, talk about social interactions, role models, suggesting how to behave and build confidence about likability

Friends have protective effect against low peer group acceptance and unpopularity but can bully

96
Q

Crick and dodge interaction

Aggression and passive explanation

A

Aggression- principle cause of rejection, limited opportunities to form relationships
Isolation consequence from exclusion. Hostile goals and jealous and exclusive friendships

Withdrawn- avoided confrontation

Predicts lower grades and school adjustment difficulties

97
Q

How to overcome rejection

A

Want to interact with others
Confident in contributing something to group
Interested in learning what others in group are like

98
Q

Teacher’s 3 methods for peer acceptance

A

1 ask peers positively toned questions
2 useful suggestions
3 supportive statements to peers

Improved compared to control but experimenter was not blind

99
Q

Empathy, sympathy and emotional contagion, mimicry

A

Empathy- feel as the other does
sympathy- feel for the other person
emotional contagion-catch other’s emotions
Mimicry- adopt another’s expressions

100
Q

Meltzoff newborn

A

The ‘like me’ hypothesis
Newborns bring common code to first interactions
Understand behaviour they see and see self as similar to others
Imitated the adult but may not be replicated today

101
Q

Development of concern for others longitudinal research

A

Mothers record children’s responses to others’ emotions over a year. Stimulates others emotions and record how reacts

-changed from upset when see another in distress to trying to comfort with prosocial behaviour

102
Q

Development of concern when emotion is not visible research

A

Experimenter A draws picture, B tore it OR blank paper. A neutral
Measure concerned looks
Later A dropped balloon
- those who saw A harmed more likely/quicker to look at A and help with ballon despite A being neutral

103
Q

Kohlberg’s moral reasoning (3)

A

PRECONVENTIONAL- obedience to authorities is ‘right’. Avoidance of punishment. Equal exchanges are right

CONVENTIONAL-good behaviour is doing what is expected by people in a role. Fulfil ones duty and uphold laws

POSTCONVENTIONAL- uphold rules in best interest to group but some values are universal, reflect justice not always the law

104
Q

Kohlberg’s moral reasoning evaluation

A

Gender bias (only tested on males)
Culture bias (western bias)
Clinical interview may not be valid
Could move through stages simultaneously
Fail to acknowledge children appreciate distinction between social conventions and morals

105
Q

Facilitating moral reasoning Piaget and Kruger

A

Piaget- interactions with peers

Kruger- in peer conditions showed greater gains in moral reasoning at post level. Degree child engaged in reflective discourse correlated with moral reasoning at post test

106
Q

Facilitating moral reasoning: peer vs mother

A

Females 7-10yrs solve dilemmas with a peer or mother

Peer= greater gains in moral reasoning, related to amount of reflective discourse

107
Q

Define

Pro social behaviour and Altruism

A

Prosocial behaviour - Voluntary behaviour to benefit another e.g. sharing

Altruism- prosocial behaviour for unselfish motives

108
Q

Pro social behaviours and age

A

Children engage in more prosocial behaviours with age

18 months others helped in simple tasks
Comforting others increases in 2yr
Biologically prepare for altruism NOT culture or teaching

109
Q

Sharing stickers study

A

4.5-6 year old share sticker with: classmate they liked, didn’t like and unknown child

Prosocial- 1 sticker for self now OR 1 for child and 1 for self later
Sharing- 2 stickers for self now OR 1 for child and 1 for self later
More likely fair division if SHARING with friend and no cost to self when sharing with a stranger

110
Q

Inequity aversion study (levers)

A

Pull levers to get more vs less sweets than other child or reject so no one gets any

Equal amounts = very unlikely to reject
More sweets for self=more likely to accept in some cultures
less sweets for self= more likely to reject so no one gets any

111
Q

Factors influencing prosocial behaviour

Biological

A

Heritability-differences of temperament

Not overwhelmed by emotions have more sympathy

112
Q

Factors influencing prosocial behaviour

Parenting

A

Secure attachment
Model empathy/sensitivity, discuss emotions and impact on others, point out consequences of anti social behaviour
Inductive parenting “can’t you see she’s upset”
Lack of sympathy if use physical punishment, threats, authoritarian

113
Q

Do extrinsic rewards undermine altruism study

A

Children helped an adult who either: Gave material reward, praise or neutral (no reward)

Then opportunity to help adult (with no reward)

  • Neutral and praise conditions make more likely to help in second phase
  • suggest helping behaviours are intrinsically motivated
114
Q

Prosocial behaviours from prosocial peers

A

Exposed to prosocial peers at start of year=more prosocial by end of year

Play with others as prosocial as them, reinforce behaviours
Peer support systems are successful in the UK

115
Q

Cultural differences in prosocial behaviour

A

3-11 years
More prosocial-Kenya,Mexico,Philippines,
Compared to US, India, Japan (value competition)
More prosocial when had to help with chores

116
Q

Challenge of altruism through evolution and solution

A

Natural selection- Altruism can disadvantage us

Kin selection- help others who share genetic material (family) doesn’t explain why we help friends and strangers

117
Q

Children opinion on reciprocity

A

3years-clear on who should benefit from kindness
Think people should prefer to share resources with family and friends, people who shared with them (reciprocity) and those who shared with others (indirect reciprocity)

Can explain evolutionary origins if cooperation and solves free rider problem

118
Q

Group selection and altruism

A

Altruistic behaviours spread to benefit group as a whole

Hard to reconcile with selfish gene accounts

119
Q

Why communication is important

A

Concern for group mates to survive and thrive, reciprocate concern
Need to collaborate for foraging, joint goal
Recognise members to count on and share skills

120
Q

Mathematical cognition

A

How individuals understand mathematical ideas
Factors that explain differences in maths performance

  • how cognitive system processes numerical info
  • low numeracy negatively impacts life outcomes
120
Q

Two systems to perceive numerical information

A

SUBITIZING fast and accurate enumeration of small numerical amounts. Slower when more dots

APPROXIMATE NUMBER SYSTEM No time to count- estimate large quantities. Influence by density, spacing and luminance
Tend to overestimate larger numbers. Related to parietal lobe

Non symbolic (as dots) 
and symbolic (verbal ‘three’ or visual ‘3’)
121
Q

Subitizing amounts and age

A

1-3 objects held between 2-5 years of age
3-4 objects held between 7 years to adult

Hard for Down’s syndrome and maths disability to subitize

122
Q

Explain limited capacity of subitizing

A

May come from Visio spatial working memory

VSS tasks compromise ability in subitizing task

123
Q

Ratio effect

A

When ratio closer to 1 it is harder to discriminate

124
Q

Approximate number system on Gaussian curve

A

More overlap from wider curves of activation=worse performance

Weber fraction - measure width of curves (overlap), the lower the better

125
Q

Study of of Approximate number system-ages

A

6 months- Flash 8 dots until bored, flash 16 (ratio of 2)- difference perceived but not when 12 flashed up

10 months-Determine 8 vs 12 but not 10 vs 12
System more precise with age when declines after adulthood

126
Q

Evolutionary aspect of ANS

A

Discrimination necessary for survival (predator, food, mates amounts)

127
Q

Difficulties studying ANS evaluation

A

Low reliability- different tasks have weak correlation, retest reliability
Perceptual confounds- visual stimuli influences ANS but doesn’t automatically mean there is no independent mechanism
Inhibition- may affect relation between ANS and math achievement
ANS may be just sensory cues

128
Q

Our number system

A

Symbols are arbitrary, Arabic numerals: number words (ten) and visual (10)
Number words learnt first, understanding of symbols predicts maths achievement

2 year olds- can recite numbers from rote, don’t understand meaning
Number words easier to learn in languages with singular/plural distinction

129
Q

5 counting principles (5)

A

Stable order
One to one correspondence-each object counted once
Abstraction-any objects can be counted
Order relevance-order items are counted is irrelevant
Cardinality-last number said gives amount in set

130
Q

Give a number task

A

Ask for 5 tomatoes

Pre number knower- unrelated to requested number
One number knower- not reliably correct when asked for any higher than one
Two number knower-
Three number knower-
Four number knower-
Cardinal principle knower-Knows exact meaning of all number words as high as they can count

131
Q

Becoming a cardinal principle knower

A

Long and error prone lasting around age 2 to 4

High SES (reached sooner)
Home numerosity (practice with parents)
132
Q

Learning number words process

A
  • map number words to ANS (approx numerical meaning, scaffolding to counting)
  • learn small number words: link to object representations
  • large numbers learnt (induction) through structural similarities between words and external objects
133
Q

Number words (transparency and inversion)

A

TRANSPARENCY-reflect place-value e.g. ‘ten-one’ not eleven
Fewer distinct numbers to learn, explicit linguistic structure, may explain good maths ability in Asians

INVERSION- order of number words is reversed e,g, German

134
Q

Learning digits (mirror writing )

A

Mirror writing: when from memory but disappears by age 7 (assume can flip letters/numbers like objects)

135
Q

Distance and size effects in digits

A

Distance effect -closer two digits are in value, longer it takes to decide which is larger
Size effect- larger digits take longer it takes to decide which is larger

Distance effect + size effect = ratio effect

136
Q

Digit comparison task

A

Size congruity effect- Emerges around age 7-8
Longer reaction time when smaller digit is presented as physically bigger

Digits automatically activate magnitude representation which interferes with the physical dimension

137
Q

Transcoding

A

Specific number syntax of multi digit numbers
Understand place value e.g. units 1-9, tens 10-90

Additive- three hundred AND forty five (345)
Multiplicative- 4x 100 400
Zero- dont say 0 in 403

138
Q

Symbolic number processing and maths achievement

A

Symbolic number processing relates to mathematical achievement
Reduced performance in those with maths disability

139
Q

Violation of expectancy to see if infants understand arithmetic

A

Infants look longer at incorrect puppet sum, found surprising
At 5 then 9 months for larger quantities

Visual cues can affect estimations so was controlled

140
Q

Preschool children and arithmetic

A

Display a mental model for arithmetic before education

Accuracy increases with age
Decrease in performance with larger problem

141
Q

3 Types of arithmetic problems

A 
Non verbal (recreate numerical set)
Word (Mike has 3 balls...)
Abstract symbolic (one add two)

Older children more accurate in all formats

142
Q

Accuracy for addition and subtraction problems

A

Addition-more accurate non verbal
Same accuracy in word and abstract symbolic

Subtraction-more accurate non verbal
Better at word problems than abstract symbolic
(may be less experience performing subtraction compared to addition)

143
Q

Solving problems with manipulatives

A

Spontaneously use fingers to solve word problems and abstract symbolic problems
Create physical model using concrete manipulations
Improves accuracy in real situations
Use of pictures associated with higher accuracy

144
Q

Solving word problems (4 steps)

A

1 create representation of problem
2 extract relevant information
3 select appropriate operation
4 perform the operation

Difficulties can arise at each step and often errors stem from failure to represent the problem correctly

145
Q

Relational language

A

Fewer than etc

Words that require a subtraction

146
Q

Strategies for addition problems (5)

A

Invented strategies, spontaneously developed
Studied using micro genetic designs

Count all- use objects or fingers
Count from first-count from first and use objects or fingers to keep track
Count from larger-count from largest and use objects or fingers to keep track (descending)
Decomposition
Retrieval- known number facts in LTM

147
Q

Strategies for subtraction problems

A

CONCRETE ITEMS
Separating from- a then remove b
Adding- create b then add until a
Matching- create a and b and match them one to one

MENTAL COUNTING STRATEGIES
Counting down- from a to b
Counting up- from b to a

148
Q

Arithmetic strategies: strengthening associations

A

Initially use procedural strategies (counting, decomposition)
Each time, association between problem and answer is strengthened
If strength of associations are above certain threshold =retrieved

149
Q

Errors and incorrect answers in arithmetic

A

More errors with larger operands-less practice

Incorrect answers- retrieve something from memory that is close e.g. confuse multiplication with addition

150
Q

Overlapping waves model

A

Select from a variety of strategies at any time

Not a staircase model with sudden transitions

151
Q

4 dimensions of strategy use

A

Strategy repertoire -range of strategies
Strategy distribution - frequency
Strategy efficiency-accuracy and speed
Strategy selection-whether make appropriate choice based on efficiency

152
Q

Choice/no choice paradigm

A

Shows which strategy is adaptive (quick and accurate response)

Choice- choose strategy and report which was used (repertoire and distribution )
No choice- must use retrieval (efficiency)

154
Q

How does exposure to printed words help reading

A

Increase lexical quality (extent mental representation of word specifies its meaning)
Language helps learn verbal number words, understand instructions and word problems, vocab predicts early numeracy

Cognitive resources freed up for comprehension

154
Q

Domain general influences on arithmetic

A

Domain specific mathematical knowledge + domain general executive function and language

Understand the problem, select appropriate strategy, apply it efficiently

154
Q

Working memory and arithmetic

A

Tests-
Verbal: backward digit span (count backwards in amounts)
VSS: Corsi task (tapping a sequence, backwards)

Studies- Reduced WM in children with maths learning difficulties. Struggle to carry out procedures when calculating, cannot access arithmetic facts in LTM

155
Q

Inhibition and shifting on arithmetic

A

INHIBITION- External (sound) or internal (irrelevant info in memory)distractions. May be related to maths achievement but other studies say not (may be because it is a multifaceted skill)

SHIFTING- Switch attention from one task to another
Correlated to maths achievement across a wide age range

156
Q

MLD and DD disadvantages

A

Reduced subitizing, ANS
Delay in counting principle acquisition
Slower reaction time in digit comparison tasks, symbolic number processing, judging magnitude, poor understanding of place value
Reduced ability to name and write numbers
Use immature strategies for longer (count on fingers)

157
Q

How long term memory may affect DD

A

Phonological loop- poor number facts retrieval (weak evidence)
Central executive-may be compromised
Visuospatial sketchpad-compromised representation of numbers

Unclear in comorbid with DD or a feature of condition itself

158
Q

Place value understanding

A

Position of digit changes based on place e.g. 30 or 300

Preschoolers rudimentary understanding, understood by end of primary

158
Q

Maths learning disability and developmental dyscalculia

A

MLD lowest 25% DD severe 5-10%

Low performance in standardised maths test
Exclusion criteria-low performance not from lack of education, neurological or psychiatric disorders

160
Q

Developmental dsycalculia

A

Comorbid with additional learning disorder e.g. reading difficulty, attention deficit

Heterogeneous with different subtypes (needs empirical validation however)

161
Q

Domains of MLD and DD

A

May be impaired in both domains

Domain SPECIFIC- core deficit is numerical, weak representation of number words and digits, difficulty ANS
Domain GENERAL- problems memorising arithmetic facts but little evidence for LTM deficits

162
Q

Maths skills individual differences

A

Maths skills are not unitary (may be good at retrieval but not understand principles etc)
Large individual differences between those of same age
Different developmental trajectories

163
Q

Children with DD and pseudo and real errors

A

Pseudo- count right to left or alternating order depending on the colour of objects
Real errors- double counting

Children with DD more likely to report pseudo errors as incorrect and real errors as correct

YEAR 2 Semester 1👩🏼‍🎓 (6 decks)

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