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PS2002 > Social > Flashcards

Social Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the ideological level of analysis.

A

Cultures, values and norms within a society, etc.

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2
Q

Describe the positional level of analysis.

A

Aspects of social position, such as status, group memberships, relationships between groups, etc.

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3
Q

Describe the interpersonal level of analysis.

A

Between individuals: interaction, features of the situation, presence of others, etc.

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4
Q

Describe the intrapersonal level of analysis.

A

Within the individual: How we organise our experience, perceptions, sense of self, etc.

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5
Q

Define the self concept.

A

The entire collection of beliefs we hold about ourselves.

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6
Q

Define the self schema.

A

Attributes about which we are certain and represent clearly.

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7
Q

Define the working self.

A

Information about the self that is used in a given situation.

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8
Q

Define self-enhancement.

A

Having self-esteem.

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9
Q

Define self-assessment.

A

Being accurate about ourselves.

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10
Q

Define self-verification.

A

Confirming what we already think.

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11
Q

Give 5 examples of self-enhancement.

A

Better-than-average effect, considering self fairer than others, remembering success and forgetting failure, considering those who say nice things about us to be more credible and self-serving attribution bias.

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12
Q

How do people tend to acquire self worth in individualistic cultures?

A

Being unique, independent, “true to self” and pursuing own goals.

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13
Q

How do people tend to acquire self worth in collectivistic cultures?

A

Fitting in, fulfilling obligations, maintaining harmony, self control and promoting others’ goals.

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14
Q

Briefly describe self-categorisation theory.

A

The combination of personal identity (uniqueness) and social identity (similarity and difference with others (groups)).

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15
Q

How does the ‘naive scientist view’ understand attribution?

A

Based on consensus, distinctiveness and consistency.

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16
Q

What is the fundamental attribution error (FAE)?

A

Over attributing behaviour to stable, dispositional causes and not accounting for social norms and situational causes.

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17
Q

What makes FAE stronger?

A

Quick judgements, cognitive busyness, good mood and not knowing much about the person.

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18
Q

Describe actor-observer bias.

A

Attributing own behaviour to situational causes and others’ behaviour to dispositional causes.

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19
Q

Describe self-serving attribution bias.

A

Tracking credit for success but denying responsibility for failure.

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20
Q

Describe self-handicapping.

A

Pre-emotive attribution of failure to situation, which can lead to sabotaging your own performance.

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21
Q

(Collectivist/Individualistic) cultures appear to think more holistically.

A

Collectivist.

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22
Q

Describe the ‘just world theory.’

A

Derogation of victims to protect sense of justice and feeling that it won’t happen to oneself.

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23
Q

Attitudes needs to be (genetic/specific) to predict specific behaviour.

A

Specific.

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24
Q

Describe the self-perception theory of attitude.

A

We infer our attitudes from our behaviour.

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25
Q

Describe the over-justification effect in the study of attitude.

A

Incentives can undermine motivation because we won’t attribute our behaviour to intrinsic interest.

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26
Q

Describe embodied social cognition.

A

Physical circumstances facilitate reactions/attitudes.

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27
Q

Describe cognitive dissonance.

A

An unpleasant psychological state where people notice their attitudes and behaviours/other attitudes are inconsistent with each other.

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28
Q

Describe the central route of analysing an argument.

A

Based on quality: Analysing the message and elaborating: active think and countering, etc.

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29
Q

Describe the peripheral route of analysing an argument.

A

Based on persuasion cues: Considering the length/number of arguments, attractiveness of source, mere exposure, etc.

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30
Q

What motivational factors influence argument processing routes?

A

Involvement in the topic and ‘need for cognition.’

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31
Q

What ability based factors influence argument processing routes?

A

Expertise, difficulty and distraction.

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32
Q

Give 2 problems with using fear to persuade.

A

“Fear control” rather than risk control and self-affirmation leading to defensiveness (but not always).

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33
Q

What are process losses in group production?

A

Coordination loss where some effort is lost (due to hindering each other, etc).

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34
Q

What is social loafing in group production?

A

Motivation loss due to own effort not being recognised.

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35
Q

What 3 factors can make groups more productive than individuals?

A

Collectivism, meaningful tasks and identification and cohesion.

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36
Q

Describe deindividuation.

A

A state where people have lowered concern for social evaluation and act in an unconstructed, anti-social manner.

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37
Q

What aspects of group behaviours (e.g. at riots) suggest it is not deindividuation, but more likely group norms?

A

Social identity, limits to violence and not all actions generalise.

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38
Q

Define normative influence.

A

Wanting to be liked and accepted.

39
Q

Define informational influence.

A

Wanting to be right.

40
Q

Describe the ‘genetic’ model of how minorities change the majority opinion.

A

Break the consensus, attract attention, set out alternative, show commitment and certainty, don’t compromise and make majority move position to avoid conflict.

41
Q

Explain majority influence as a (______) process.

A

Comparison: submission to social pressure and temporary, public conformity.

42
Q

Explain minority influence as a (______) process.

A

Validation: trying to understand the position, deeper cognitive processing and private conversion.

43
Q

Describe the ingroup sensitivity effect.

A

Criticism of the group is more acceptable when it comes from an ingroup member assumed to have a constructive motive.

44
Q

Briefly describe contingency theories of leadership.

A

The leader must match the situation.

45
Q

What situations are task-oriented leaders more suited to?

A

High and low situational control.

46
Q

What situations are relationship-oriented leaders more suited to?

A

Intermediate situational control.

47
Q

Describe the social identity theory of leadership.

A

Leaders must be seen to promote group interests, be prototypical and be entrepreneurs of identity.

48
Q

What is prototypical leader?

A

One which acts an embodiment of ‘us’ and is seen as fair, trustworthy, characteristic and creative with change (while maintaining trust).

49
Q

Give 3 problems with the ‘agentic state’ explanation of Milgram’s study.

A

Obedient people are not always passive and indifferent to consequences, there was variation between the conditions and directs orders are actually ineffective.

50
Q

Describe the 3-process theory of power.

A

Persuasion, control by authority and control by coercion.

51
Q

Define power in the 3-process theory of power.

A

Getting people to carry out one’s will.

52
Q

Give 2 limits of coercion to exercise power.

A

It requires surveillance and undermines legitimacy and influence, eventually reducing power.

53
Q

Describe the authoritarian personality.

A

Some people have irrational prejudices and are susceptible to Fascist propaganda due to inner frustration because of authoritarian parenting.

54
Q

Define Realistic Group Conflict Theory.

A

Material relations between social groups determine attitudes and prejudice comes from conflicts of interest.

55
Q

According to the stereotype content model, in low competition situations people of high status are treated with (___) and considered (___).

A

Admiration & warm and competent.

56
Q

According to the stereotype content model, in high competition situations people of high status are treated with (___) and considered (___).

A

Envy & cold and competent.

57
Q

According to the stereotype content model, in low competition situations people of low status are treated with (___) and considered (___).

A

Paternalism & warm and incompetent.

58
Q

According to the stereotype content model, in high competition situations people of low status are treated with (___) and considered (___).

A

Contempt & cold and incompetent.

59
Q

How does exposure to benevolent sexism affect men?

A

They excuse domestic violence.

60
Q

How does exposure to benevolent sexism affect women?

A

They are more deferent to men, they base self esteem on appearance rather than competence and they undermine their own competence with intrusive thoughts.

61
Q

Briefly describe stereotype threat.

A

Performance can be undermined by the fear of confirming a negative stereotype.

62
Q

In what groups is outgroup favouritism most prevalent?

A

Low status groups.

63
Q

What is system justification theory (SJT)?

A

When unfair social systems are supported even by disadvantaged groups, due to media stereotypes that promote dominant group interests and motivation to avoid uncertainty and legitimate the status quo.

64
Q

What is the main problem with system justification theory?

A

It treats justifying the system as a basic human motive, but people actually do reject systems.

65
Q

Give the 3 main antecedents of collective action.

A

Sense of injustice, efficacy and identity.

66
Q

What is relative deprivation?

A

The gap between what we have and what we think we are entitled to, understood through comparison.

67
Q

What type of relative deprivation leads to collective action?

A

Group/fraternalistic.

68
Q

What are the conditions required for the Contact Hypothesis?

A

Institutional support, equal status, cooperation/common goals and acquaintance potential.

69
Q

What are the strongest effects of contact on prejudice?

A

Affective measures and majority groups.

70
Q

What are the 2 key factors in contact that improve relations?

A

Reducing intergroup anxiety and empathy.

71
Q

Describe extended indirect contact.

A

Seeing others interact or knowing someone who interacted with the outgroup.

72
Q

Describe imagined indirect contact.

A

Mentally picturing interactions with the outgroup.

73
Q

What is the de-categorisation model of group salience?

A

Seeing others as individuals makes interaction less awkward and anxiety provoking.

74
Q

What is the mutual intergroup differentiation model of group salience?

A

Seeing each other as group members allows generalisation of attitudes.

75
Q

How do you combine the 2 approach to group salience to make contact effective?

A

First, reduce GS to avoid anxiety, then increase GS go facilitate generalisation.

76
Q

What is the prejudice reduction approach to social change?

A

Improving the attitudes of the historically advantaged group to reduce conflict.

77
Q

What is the collective action approach to social change?

A

Action by the historically disadvantaged group to challenge the status quo.

78
Q

What is the empathy-altruism hypothesis?

A

Empathetic concern drives helping.

79
Q

Give 2 ways empathy can be understood.

A

As a trait or as a skill.

80
Q

The bystander effect: as no. of bystanders increased, people are less likely to….?

A

Notice the problem, interpret it as a problem and assume responsibility.

81
Q

In what type of emergencies is bystander effect reversed?

A

Violent emergencies.

82
Q

The number of people present (increases/reduces) helping when those people are friends )compared to strangers).

A

Increases.

83
Q

In what 2 circumstances are people more likely to help the outgroup?

A

When the ingroup image is at stake and when the help is dependency oriented, so the outgroup is inferior.

84
Q

Helping behaviour is more common in cultures (high/low) economic productivity.

A

Low.

85
Q

Define aggression.

A

Behaviour that is intended to harm another person, with the knowledge that the target is motivated to avoid the action.

86
Q

Define catharsis.

A

Releasing aggressive energy through some ‘harmless’ substitute for actual aggression.

87
Q

How can catharsis train people to be aggressive?

A

Aggression is often rewarding to the perpetrator and so aggressive behaviour is reinforced.

88
Q

How does media influence aggression?

A

Teaches that violence is rewarding, can cause hostile attribution bias and ‘mean world syndrome’ and causes desensitisation.

89
Q

Give 2 ways people may be dehumanised to justify aggression towards them.

A

Treated as animals or as objects.

90
Q

What are implicit attitudes?

A

Actions or judgements under the control of automatically activated evaluation, without performer’s awareness.

91
Q

Give 2 advantages of studying implicit, over explicit, attitudes.

A

Avoidance of self-presentation concerns and reveal of attitudes people may be unaware of.

92
Q

Give 4 criticisms of Implicit Association Tests.

A

Are they “true” attitudes, are they valid, are they just cultural/environmental associations, and some versions have high correlations with explicit attitudes.

93
Q

Define group polarisation.

A

“The average postgroup response will tend to be mute extreme in the same direction as the average of pregroup responses.”

94
Q

Give 3 brief explanations for group polarisation.

A

Persuasive arguments, social comparison and social identity.

PS2002 (4 decks)

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