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1
Q

What are the 5 ethical guidelines?

A
  1. Debrief
  2. Informed consent
  3. Right to withdraw
  4. Competent researcher
  5. Deception
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2
Q

What is an alternate hypothesis?

A

A specific testable prediction containing variables, and will state either a difference or relationship.

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3
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

States the direction the results will go in (more, less, positive, fewer)

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4
Q

Non-directional hypothesis

A

Does not state the direction of the results, leaving it open

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5
Q

What is the aim of sampling methods?

A

To ensure a representative sample of participants is used, so can be successfully generalised.

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6
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

Sample of those who are available at the time of the study

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7
Q

Random sampling

A

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

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8
Q

Stratified sampling

A

Involves classifying the population into categories and then choosing a sample which consists of participants from each category in the same proportions as they are in the population.

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9
Q

Volunteer sampling

A

Volunteering when asked or in a response to an advert.

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10
Q

Advantages of random sampling

A
  • No bias
  • Clear how the sample is chosen, process can be explained
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11
Q

Disadvantages of random sampling

A
  • Difficult to ensure everyone is available
  • Some people might not want to take part in the study
  • There can be bias in that there may be more of one group than the other, such as more male soldiers than female
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12
Q

Advantages of stratified sampling

A
  • Each group is represented, so conclusions can be drawn
  • Efficient to ensure representation from each group
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13
Q

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

A
  • Difficult to know how many of each group to choose
  • Some groups may not be important fro the study
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14
Q

Advantages of volunteer sampling

A
  • More ethical as they chose to take part
  • Volunteers are likely to be interested so less likely to give biased information, less likely to have social desirability or demand characteristic.
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15
Q

Disadvantages of volunteer sampling

A
  • Takes long time to get sufficient numbers
  • Participants may be similar, so there may not be representation
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16
Q

Advantages of opportunity sampling

A

-More ethical because the researcher can judge if the participant is likely to be upset by the study
- Researcher has more control over choosing, more quick and efficient

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17
Q

Disadvantages of opportunity sampling

A
  • More chance of bias - choosing people you know, people of own age, friendly looking people etc.
  • Self selected, so would rule out anyone not available or not willing
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18
Q

Types of closed ended questions

A
  1. Fixed choice questions, with yes/no response
  2. Likert scale questions, selecting from a fixed set of choices to rate agreement to statements
  3. Ranked scale question, ranking choice relative to other options
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19
Q

Strengths of closed ended questions

A
  • Quick and easy to answer
  • Researchers can easily analyse data, percentages and averages can be worked out
  • Questions are all the same so is more reliable
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20
Q

Weaknesses of closed ended questions

A
  • Limited amount of information
  • Answers may not match what the participants would like express
  • Choice answers could mean different things to different respondents, such as ‘unsure’ could mean ‘don’t know’, so lacks validity
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21
Q

Strengths of open ended questions

A
  • Respondents can answer freely
  • Allows them to elaborate on their answers and justify opinions
    -More detailed and valid, true to real life
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22
Q

Weaknesses of open ended questions

A
  • More time and effort for respondents
  • Qualitative analysis which can lead to subjective interpretation that is difficult to analyse
  • Respondents often fail to complete their answers
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23
Q

Structured interviews

A

Standardised so all respondents are asked same questions

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24
Q

Strengths of structured interviews

A
  • Easy to administer
  • Do not need to establish a rapport between researcher and respondent
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25
Q

Weaknesses of structured interviews

A
  • Data can be superficial and lack depth
  • Respondent may not be able to express opinions fully
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26
Q

Semi- structured interviews

A

More conversational and dynamic. Researcher has a set of questions they want to be answered but do not have a standardised format to follow.

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27
Q

Strengths of semi- structured interviews

A
  • Conversation can flow better
  • More comfortable having a relaxed atmosphere
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28
Q

Weaknesses of semi- structured interviews

A
  • Flexibility of interviews may lessen reliability
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29
Q

Unstructured interviews

A

The interviewer needs to be analytical. No set of questions or format, just asking questions and making direct reference to quotes from respondents.

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30
Q

Strengths of unstructured interviews

A
  • More flexible as questions can be changed
  • Increased validity
  • Usually in depth and detailed answers
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31
Q

Weaknesses of unstructured interviews

A
  • Time consuming
  • Employing and training interviewers is expensive
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32
Q

Response bias

A

If the respondents answer a certain way for a list of questions, they may continue to answer in that way out of habit.

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33
Q

Thematic analysis

A

Qualitative data is made numerical by counting the instances certain themes and categories appear in the data

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34
Q

Aim of thematic analysis

A

To analyse data without losing its meaningfulness, but making it more manageable by reducing it into patterns, trends and themes.

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35
Q

Strengths of thematic analysis

A
  • Encourages researcher to derive themes, so achieves better validity
  • Large data sets, many researchers can apply their interpretation to the data
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36
Q

Weaknesses of thematic analysis

A
  • Highly subjective data as it requires interpretation, so unscientific
  • Open to researcher bias, not very reliable
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37
Q

Measures of central tendency

A

Mean, median and mode

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38
Q

The mean

A

Adding up all values and dividing them by number of scores. Interval/ ratio level data is obtained. Most sensitive and can be affected by extreme values or when there is skewed distribution.

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39
Q

The mode

A

Most frequent score. Nominal data is obtained. Easy to calculate, not affected by extreme scores, but is not a useful measure on small datasets with frequently occurring same values.

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40
Q

The median

A

Placed in rank order and is the middle score. Ordinal level data is obtained. Simple calculation and not affected by skewed distribution, but is less sensitive than the mean and not useful on small datasets.

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41
Q

Measures of dispersion

A

The range and standard deviation

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42
Q

The range

A

Difference between highest and lowest value. Affected by extreme scores and may not be useful if there are outliers. Does not indicate the distribution around the mean. If there are extreme scores, interquartile range can be used.

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43
Q

Standard deviation

A

Useful for investigating spread of scores. Shows distance of each value from the mean. Standard deviation represents how the scores are spread around the mean, the higher the value, the greater the spread of scores around the mean value.

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44
Q

Bar charts

A

Present data from a categorical variable, such as mean, mode and median. Categorical variable on x-axis and height represents value.

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45
Q

Histograms

A

Present distribution of scores by illustrating the frequency. Bars are joined to represent continuous data. Possible values on x-axis and y-axis represents frequency.

46
Q

Obedience

A

Obeying direct orders from someone in authority

47
Q

What was the percentage obedience in rundown office block variation?

A

48%

48
Q

What was the percentage obedience in telephonic instructions variation?

A

22.5%

49
Q

What was the percentage obedience in ordinary man gives orders variation?

A

20%

50
Q

What was the background of Milgram’s research?

A

Focused on conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience. Justifications for acts of genocide during WWII.

51
Q

Milgram’s aim

A

Whether ordinary people will follow orders and give an innocent person an electric shock, and what conditions would increase or decrease the level of obedience.

52
Q

What sampling method did Milgram use?

A

Volunteer sampling - advert in a local newspaper

53
Q

What participants did Milgram ask for?

A

Male of military occupations

54
Q

What did Milgram say his study was about?

A

Memory and learning

55
Q

How much money were the participants paid?

A

$4

56
Q

How many confederates in Milgram’s study?

A

2 - the experimenter and learner (Mr Wallace)

57
Q

What was the voltage of the sample shock?

A

45V

58
Q

What did the participant have to do?

A

Teach the learner a list of word pairs and shocks were administered if an incorrect pair was given.

59
Q

What were the 4 verbal prods?

A
  1. Please continue
  2. The experiment requires you to continue
  3. It is absolutely essential that you continue
  4. You have no other choice but to continue, you must go on
60
Q

What was given to the participants in the end of Milgram’s study?

A

Debrief and a follow-up questionnaire

61
Q

What did Milgram conclude?

A

When learner could not be seen or heard, participant was more likely to follow orders. Provides evidence that people will obey orders given to somebody in a role of authority, even to the extent of killing an innocent human being.

62
Q

Strengths in Milgram’s original study

A
  • Right to withdraw given
  • Deception was a necessity because the research was studying obedience, so prevents demand characteristic
  • Lab experiment - standardised procedure, scripted, quantitative and qualitative data gathered. Good controls, so replicable and reliable
  • Debriefed
63
Q

Weaknesses in Milgram’s original study

A
  • Verbal prods and incentive prevents withdrawal from study
  • Stress was deliberately caused to the participants
  • Lacks ecological validity
  • Androcentric, ethnocentric, sampling method affects generalisability
  • Deception 4 times - shocks not real, Mr Wallace, not a study on memory and learning, allocation of roles
64
Q

Telephonic instructions

A

Initial instructions given face to face, then experimenter would leave the room and continue to give instructions via telephone. Shows presence of authority figure impacts obedience.

65
Q

Rundown office block

A

A rundown office building in Bridgeport was used. Shows that location impacts level of obedience.

66
Q

Ordinary man gives orders

A

Experimenter was an ordinary man. 1st confederate was the learner, 2nd confederate was the experimenter. Experimenter takes a phone call, and teacher is told to continue. Learner suggests that they should increase the shock level each time he makes a mistake.

67
Q

Two states in agency theory

A

Autonomous and agentic

68
Q

Autonomous state

A
  • Individuals see themselves as having power
  • See actions as being voluntary
  • Have free will to make their own decisions
69
Q

Agentic state

A
  • Act as agents for others, usually in authority
  • Their own consciences are not in control
  • Lose free will to make own decisions
  • Can experience moral strain
70
Q

What is moral strain?

A

Experiencing anxiety, usually because you are asked to do something that goes against your moral judgement

71
Q

Agency theory application to real life

A
  • Holocaust, Jews and other minority groups were slaughtered
  • My Lai Massacre, US soldiers obeyed an order to kill women and children in a village
  • Abu Ghraib, American soldiers detained Iraqi prisoners
72
Q

What factors affect obedience?

A
  • Situational factors - proximity, uniform and environment
  • Culture
  • Personality
  • Gender
73
Q

Describe the effect of situation on obedience

A
  • Milgram’s variations, less pressure from authority figure resulted in lower obedience, such as rundown office block and telephonic instructions
74
Q

Describe the effect of culture on obedience

A
  • Milgram found obedience in American people, so is not different to Germans
  • It could be human nature to obey in certain situations
75
Q

Which types of personality affect obedience?

A

Authoritarian personality and internal/ external locus of control

76
Q

Describe the effect of authoritarian personality on obedience

A
  • Milgram found that caring jobs showed less obedience. Catholics showed more obedience. People in armed forces showed high obedience (ex-officers showed less obedience than non-officers)
77
Q

What is authoritarian personality?

A

People who admire rules, be distant from their fathers and more likely to be in a military role

78
Q

What is internal/ external locus of control?

A

Internal - believes that they are in control of their own actions and believes that what happens is something they have caused
External - what happens comes from outside their control, feel helpless in a stressful situation

79
Q

Describe the effect of gender on obedience

A
  • Milgram’s study using female participants found 65% obedience, but showed more distress
80
Q

What is Social impact theory?

A

A phenomenon in which people affect one another in social situations.

81
Q

Impact of others on someone’s attitudes depends on:

A
  1. Number of people
  2. Immediacy of impact - proximity/distance
  3. Strength - status, age, authority
82
Q

What are the supporting evidence for Social Impact Theory?

A
  • Milgram variation 17, when 2 rebellious stooges disobeyed, the participant was also more likely to disobey. 10% obedience
83
Q

What factors affect prejudice?

A
  • Personality
  • Situation
  • Culture
84
Q

What does authoritarian personality indicate about prejudice?

A

Social dominance orientation is someone who believes in social hierarchy and wants their own group to dominate others. Right wing authoritarianism means following rules and obeying orders for the sake of a controlled society. Cohrs et al found right wing authoritarianism showed relationship with prejudice.

85
Q

How does situation affect prejudice?

A

Richard et al looked at 322 studies and found that both situation and personality effects contribute to prejudice.

86
Q

What is an individualistic and collectivist culture?

A

Individualistic emphasises the act of the individual, making their own decisions. Collectivist cultures puts the group as the priority and acts as a group to meet needs.

87
Q

What is Social Identity Theory?

A

Prejudice can be explained by our tendency to identify ourselves as part of a group. Merely being in a group and being aware of the existence of another group is sufficient for prejudice to occur.

88
Q

What are the 3 stages of Social Identity Theory?

A
  1. Social categorisation - see yourself as part of a group
  2. Social identification - identifying with the group and taking on their norms and attitudes.
  3. Social comparison - self concept becomes wrapped in the in-group. See in-group as better than out-group.
89
Q

What is Realistic conflict theory?

A

Prejudice arises due to groups competing for resources. There has to be competition present.

90
Q

What was Sherif’s study called?

A

Robbers’ Cave Experiment

91
Q

What was the aim in Sherif’s study?

A

To see if in and out groups would cause prejudice, by creating conflict between. To see if working together on a superordinate goal that needed co-operation would reduce prejudice.

92
Q

Who were the participants in Sherif’s study?

A

22 x 11 year old boys (1 was 12 years old). All were white American middle-class Protestants from Oklahoma City. Matched pairs used - matched on where they lived, IQ and sporting ability

93
Q

What were the 3 stages in Sherif’s study?

A

1: Creating groups, randomly divided into two groups ‘Rattlers’ and the ‘Eagles’. Groups kept apart for a week, didn’t know about each other.

2: Causing hostility: Conflict was introduced by having a tournament, led to loyalty to in group and hostility to out-group

3: Sheif organised superordinate goals, boys had to work together to overcome problems to achieve harmony between the two groups.

94
Q

What were the 3 problem solutions in Sherif’s study?

A
  1. Fixing the water tank
  2. Joint camp-over where they worked together for food and sleeping gear
  3. Starting the broken down camp bus
95
Q

What were the results in Sherif’s study?

A
  1. Boys bonded within groups, forming group identity. Group names Rattlers & Eagles, expressed dislike for the other group.
  2. Competition led to immediate hostility - shouted insults, close to physical violence, name call, Eagles burned Rattlers flags. In-group favouritism and negative out-group bias. 93% selected friends from own group.
  3. Meal times and watching movie did not reduce fighting. Superordinate goals - fixing water tank created harmony but not for long. Secure a movie they worked together and pulling the camp bus. Increase number of boys whose friendships were with out-group 30%
96
Q

What did Sherif conclude?

A

Hostility between grew as they knew about each other and worsen by competition. Superordinate goals reduced prejudice against each other.

97
Q

What is the aim of Burger’s study?

A

To see if there are personality and gender differences in obedience levels. To see if if people still obey today using Milgram procedure but stopping at 150v

98
Q

What sampling method did Burger use?

A

Volunteer sampling - advert on local paper (paid $50) , flyers, online, telephone and email

99
Q

How were the participants in Burger’s study screened?

A

Asked if they had been to college, taken psychology classes. Interviewed by clinical psychologist to assess whether they might be negatively affected by the study.

100
Q

What was the total sample size in Burger’s study?

A

70 - 29 males, 41 females, aged 20-81 (mean age = 42.9)

101
Q

What were the 2 experiments in Burger’s study?

A

Baseline condition and modelled refusal condition

102
Q

What was the procedure for the baseline condition in Burger’s study?

A
  • split into 2 equal groups
  • introduced to experimenter and confederate
  • script similar to Milgram’s was used
  • role choice was rigged
  • learner was in adjacent room
  • teacher read 25 word pairs
  • 15V sample shock given
  • Milgram’s 4 verbal prods used
  • forcibly stopped at 150 volts
103
Q

What was the procedure for modelled refusal condition in Burger’s study?

A
  • 2 confederates, the 2nd posed as a participant
  • learner was confederate, teacher was confederate and teacher 2 was real participant
  • Teacher 1 took the lead, hesitated at 75 volts and at 90 volts states “I don’t know about this” and refuses to continue
  • Teacher 2 has to continue
104
Q

What were the results for baseline condition in Burger’s study?

A

70% obedience

105
Q

What were the results for modelled refusal in Burger’s study?

A

63.3% obedience

106
Q

What did Burger conclude?

A

Time and changes in society’s culture did not have an effect on the level of obedience demonstrated by participants.

107
Q

What is the key question?

A

Why did American soldiers continue to harm Iraqi prisoners in Abu Ghraib even though they knew it was wrong?

108
Q

How can social identity theory explain Key question?

A

Tajfel would argue that there was a formation of two groups, the US soldiers (in groups) and the prisoners (out groups). This means that the US soldiers would act differently to the Iraqi prisoner.

109
Q

How can realistic conflict theory explain key question?

A

Realistic conflict theory would be supported as soldiers were being prejudice to the prisoners and so are harming them as they were different to them and were in competition over information.

110
Q

How can Agency theory explain the key question?

A

US soldiers would have been in agentic state as the soldiers would feel that they would be agents of others and behave that they were not in control of own conscience

Psychology (7 decks)

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