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1
Q

What are case studies?

A

Allows data gathered to be in-depth and detailed. Gathers data from many different sources and different research methods

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2
Q

What type of data do case studies gather?

A

Qualitative, but can also give quantitative (e.g. IQ tests)

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3
Q

Who was HM?

A

Henry Molaison

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4
Q

Which part of HM’s brain was removed?

A

William Scoville removed HM’s hippocampus, which was associated with consolidating memories.

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5
Q

What happened to HM’s memory

A

He was assessed of having anterograde (loss of ability to make NEW memories) and retrograde (loss of ability to recall events PRIOR to the injury) amnesia.

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6
Q

How did HM contribute to understanding memory?

A

Shows that there is short term and long term memory storage. Informs us that short term memories need to be transferred to long term storage to be able to be retrieved again.

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7
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

If findings are consistent, and considered reliable, it can be trusted that findings will happen again.

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8
Q

Objectivity

A

Need to be impartial and judgement free

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9
Q

Internal validity

A

How well the procedure establishes a causal relationship between manipulated IV and measured DV.

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10
Q

Predictive validity

A

The extent to which the performance on the measure can predict future performance on a similar criterion.

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11
Q

Ecological validity

A

The extent to which the research can be generalised to other situations (real life or everyday situations).

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12
Q

Operationalised hypothesis

A

Defining precisely how you intend to measure the DV and alter the conditions of the IV

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13
Q

What are the 3 experimental designs?

A

Independent measures, repeated measures and matched pairs

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14
Q

Independent measures design

A

Using DIFFERENT participants in each condition of the experiment

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15
Q

Repeated measures design

A

Using the SAME participants in each condition of the experiment

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16
Q

Matched pairs

A

Using different but similar participants in each condition. An effort is made to match the participants in any important characteristics that might be important to the study.

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17
Q

Order effects

A

Occurs when repeated measures design is used.
Practice effect - become practised at the test and improve their performance
Fatigue effect - become tired or bored so performance deteriorates

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18
Q

Counterbalancing

A

Each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts. Divided equally between the conditions and experiment them in different order.
e.g. one group tested in A then B, other group do B then A.

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19
Q

Randomising

A

Each participant is assigned either Condition A or B first randomly

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20
Q

Extraneous variable

A

Variable that may have affected the DV but that was not the IV

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21
Q

Confounding variable

A

Variable that affects the findings of a study directly, so much that you are no longer measuring what was intended

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22
Q

Situational variables

A

An extraneous variable found in the environment, such as noise, time of day, temperature, disturbances etc.

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23
Q

Participant variables

A

Participants themselves may affect results as they have different characteristics, such as intelligence, level of motivation, age, personality, skills.

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24
Q

Experimenter/ researcher effect

A

The way the experimenter may influence the outcome of an experiment by their actions or presence.

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25
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

Presence of the experimenter can affect performance

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26
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Participants have certain expectations concerning the experiment. Actual communication, what the participant may have heard about the experiment, effect of the experimenter causes the participant to alter their behaviour to meet the expectations.

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27
Q

Standardisation

A

Making an experiment the same experience for all participants. Standardised instructions and standardised procedures.

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28
Q

Nominal data

A

Form of categories

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29
Q

Ordinal data

A

Ordered in some way, e.g. ranking

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30
Q

Interval data

A

Real measurements are involved, e.g temperature

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31
Q

Ratio data

A

Same as interval, but there is a true zero point, e.g. cm or seconds

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32
Q

Who proposed the Multi-store model of memory?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

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33
Q

What are the 3 basic memory stores?

A

Sensory buffer, short-term memory and long-term memory

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34
Q

Multi store model of memory

A

Attended information from sensory register is transferred to STM, from STM information can be transferred to LTM

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35
Q

Sensory Buffer

A
  • One register for each sensory modality e.g. visual, auditory
  • Limited, approx. 50 milliseconds duration
  • Capacity 3-4 items
  • Forgetting by decay
  • Retrieval by scanning
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36
Q

STM duration research

A

Peterson and Peterson - using an interference task to prevent rehearsal. Required to remember a single trigram for intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 secs. Correct recall of trigram was likely after a short interval but performance dropped after 15-18 secs.

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37
Q

STM capacity research

A

Miller - STM limited to around 7 items. ‘Magic number seven, plus or minus two’

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38
Q

Primacy-recency effect

A

Glanzer and Cunitz - first and last words in the list were recalled well, but middle words were not remembered well. First (primacy effect) had gone into LTM through rehearsal and end (recency effect) is still in rehearsal loop. Middle is not well recalled as it was displaced by new material.

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39
Q

STM encoding

A

Memory trace was held in an auditory or verbal form because of phonological similarity effect. Suggests STM encoding is primarily acoustic.

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40
Q

STM retrieval

A

Based on rapid scanning of stored information. Rehearsal is important for maintaining information in the STM, increasing strength of memory trace.

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41
Q

Transfer of information between STM and LTM

A

Transfer can be a result of rehearsal - leave a weak memory trace. Stronger memory trace by using a medical operation such as a mnemonic.

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42
Q

STM summary

A
  • Acoustic and verbal encoding
  • Duration 15 - 30 seconds
  • Storage capacity 5 - 9 items
  • Forgetting by decay through displacement
  • Retrieval by sequential search
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43
Q

Retrieval from LTM

A

LTM exists for all sensory modalities, multiple copies of a memory were retained.
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (Brown and McNeill 1968) showed that people were able to accurately predict that they could recognise a correct answer even if they could not recall the answer at that moment in time.

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44
Q

Encoding in LTM

A

Depend on rehearsal process or association between new and pre-existing knowledge. Encoding is semantic.

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45
Q

Duration of LTM

A

Potentially a lifetime. Bahrick (1975) found that identification of names and faces in High School Yearbook was between 70-80% accurate 48 years after leaving school.

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46
Q

Capacity of LTM

A

Potentially infinite. Brady (2008) showed 2500 objects over 5.5 hours. Participants were shown the original object paired with a different object, identification was 92% and if different object was similar 88%

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47
Q

LTM summary

A
  • Semantic encoding
  • Potentially a lifetime of duration
  • Limitless capacity
  • Forgetting through decay and interference
  • Semantic retrieval
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48
Q

Strengths of MSM

A
  • Supporting evidence
  • HM case study gives physiological support
  • Shows they have separate stores - Baddeley conducted an experiment and found that semantic words were more difficult to recall, suggests encoding in STM and LTM were different
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49
Q

Weaknesses of MSM

A
  • Experiments use artificial tasks, so might not be valid
  • Alternative explanations
  • Too simplistic an explanation.
  • Emphasis given to rehearsal in transfer of information from STM to LTM
50
Q

Clive Wearing

A

Could not recall past events, but could only remember how to play the piano. Suggests the LTM is not a single store but could be because of something more complex

51
Q

Who proposed the Working Memory Model?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

52
Q

Why did Baddeley and Hitch propose the WMM?

A

They noted problems with the MSM because it was overly simplistic and it emphasised the role of rehearsal as being critical to learning.

53
Q

What are the 3 components of the WMM?

A

Central executive, phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

54
Q

What is the role of the working memory?

A

To temporarily store and manipulate information being used. It is fragile and susceptible to distraction, overload and overwork

55
Q

Central executive

A

Deal with the running of the memory system and two slave systems. Has limited capacity but can deal with different types of sensory information. The attentional controller with capacity to focus, divide and switch attention.

56
Q

Modality free

A

Able to process different forms of information e.g. acoustic, visual

57
Q

Phonological loop

A

Holds speech based information for about 2 seconds before decay. Deals with temporary storage of VERBAL information.

58
Q

What are the two components in the phonological loop?

A

Articulatory loop (inner voice) and Primary Acoustic Store (inner ear)

59
Q

Primary Acoustic Store

A

Holds auditory traces which decay rapidly after a few seconds.

60
Q

Phonological similarity effect

A

It is more difficult to remember similar sounding words and letters compared to different sounding words. Not the case for semantic similarity, shows that it relies on acoustic encoding for storage.

61
Q

Articulatory loop

A

Revives memory traces by rehearsing them, subvocal speech.

62
Q

Word length effect

A

Short monosyllabic words were recalled more successfully than longer polysyllabic words. Longer words filled up the limited capacity resulting in decay. The LONGER the word, the more capacity was used up and forgetting more likely.

63
Q

Visuospatial sketchpad

A

Can temporarily hold and manipulate visual and spatial information, such as shapes, colours. Limited in capacity to around 3 - 4 objects.

64
Q

WMM Individual differences

A

Some people have better STM than others. Poor WM has been associated with dyslexia and Specific language impairment.

65
Q

Strengths of WMM

A
  • Expands on MSM, more information
  • Neurophysiological evidence - case study of KF
  • Valid, credible as it fits with everyday situations
66
Q

KF case study

A

Suffered STM impairment following a motorbike accident. Problem with immediate recall of words being presented verbally, but not with visual information. KF has impaired articulatory loop but intact VSSP

67
Q

Weaknesses of WMM

A
  • Artificial task, lack ecological and task validity
  • Only explains STM, not transfer to LTM
  • Central Executive is simplistic and vague, doesn’t explain what it does, difficult to design tasks to test it
68
Q

Who proposed reconstructive memory?

A

Bartlett (1932)

69
Q

What did Bartlett believe about memory?

A

It should not be divided into its parts and treated as independent from other functioning, but should be studied to capture the relationship between memory

70
Q

Perception

A

Conducted experiments to test memory for shapes and objects and found that participants often assign verbal labels. Perception of the shape or object influenced how it was remembered.

71
Q

Imaging

A

Showed ink blots and asked what they saw. Participants searched their own stored images to find the best match

72
Q

Effort after meaning

A

Participants connect a stimulus with knowledge or experience they already possessed. Once the stimulus gains meaning, it can be more readily stored.

73
Q

Remembering

A

Perception is an active construction of what we think we see using our prior knowledge.

74
Q

War of the Ghosts

A
  • 20 participants read the story twice
  • Tested recall after several minutes, weeks, months and years
  • Story became SHORTENED, phrases reflected modern concepts and the story became more COHERENT
  • Transformations were reported to make the story more familiar
75
Q

What did Bartlett conclude about memory?

A
  • It is a reconstruction each time it is recalled
  • Rarely accurate and prone to rationalisation (shortening)
  • Confabulation (making up bits and filling in gaps)
  • Remembering is constructive and influenced by inferences made by an individual
76
Q

Schema theory

A

Schemas are parcels of stored knowledge or mental representations of information about a specific object or event. Used in recognition and interpretation of unfamiliar objects and events.

77
Q

Stereotyping

A

Attitudes and responses to events change our memory for those events. Recall involves retrieving knowledge that has been altered to fit with stereotypes the person already has.

78
Q

Reconstructive memory individual differences

A

How we perceive an object or event is based on individual interpretation, influences by past experiences, knowledge learned and beliefs we possess.

79
Q

Strengths of reconstructive memory

A
  • Evidence - War of Ghosts and Loftus+Palmer
  • Can be tested experimentally, makes it scientific
  • Good application to real life, police and courts with eyewitnesses
80
Q

Weaknesses of reconstructive memory

A
  • Does not deal with the process, it is a description rather than an explanation
  • War of the Ghosts is an unusual story that does not make sense, so it could be argued that there could be demand characteristics where the participants guess what is intended
  • WMM and MSM
81
Q

Who proposed the episodic/semantic memory?

A

Tulving 1972

82
Q

Episodic memory

A

Remembered experiences

83
Q

Semantic memory

A

Remembered facts

84
Q

What are the differences between episodic and semantic memory?

A
  1. Nature of stored memories
  2. Time referencing
  3. Spatial referencing
  4. Nature of retrieving memories
  5. Independence of each store
85
Q

What is the nature of episodic memory?

A

Mental diary - about experiences or events that occur. A record of events.

86
Q

What is the nature of semantic memory?

A

Mental encyclopaedia - storing words, facts, rules, meanings and concepts. Associated with other facts that link the concepts together.

87
Q

Time referencing of episodic memory

A

Dependent on time-referencing, memories about events that happen to you are linked to the time in which they occurred.

88
Q

Time referencing of semantic memory

A

Detached from the time when it occurred, factual information can be recalled without reference to when it was learned.

89
Q

Spatial referencing of episodic memory

A

Input is continuous as we experience a whole episode in relation to when and where it happened.

90
Q

Spatial referencing of semantic memory

A

Input can be fragmentary, we can piece factual information together that has been learned at different points in time.

91
Q

Retrieval of episodic memory

A

Only possible if it has been encoded and stored. Retrieval changes the memory that is stored, as a new episode that links to it is now encoded and stored.

92
Q

Retrieval of semantic memory

A

Can help to work out things we don’t actually know before doing the working out. Retrieval does not change the actual memory.

93
Q

Do the stores operate independently or are they interrelated?

A

Semantic memory can operate independently of episodic memory. Episodic memory is unlikely to operate without semantic memory as we need to be able to draw on previous knowledge of objects, people and events to understand them.

94
Q

Forgetting episodic memory

A

Forgetting due to retrieval cue failure (forgetting when and where something happened). Memory trace can be transformed/ changed

95
Q

Forgetting semantic memory

A

Memory trace more robust and less susceptible to change.

96
Q

Strengths of episodic/ semantic memory

A
  • Case study of KC - suffered LTM impairment to his episodic memory, resulting in inability to form or recall personal events in life, but could recall factual information
  • Detailed explanation of types of LTM
  • Neurophysiological evidence - episodic memory seems to be affected by pre-frontal brain damage rather than semantic memories
97
Q

Weaknesses of episodic/ semantic memory

A
  • Clive Wearing suffered memory impairments that affected LTM recall from episodic storage but he was still able to perform procedural tasks. Suggests a further long-term store for remembering practised skills
  • Difficult to test as they both work together, so research into separate stores is problematic because they cannot be isolated
98
Q

What was the background information for Baddeley’s study?

A

Wanted to test whether STM and LTM were different. At the time, research used different research techniques. Baddeley wanted to explore the effects of both acoustic and semantic in LTM.

99
Q

What was Baddeley’s aim?

A

To investigate the influence of acoustic and semantic word similarity on learning and recall on LTM.

100
Q

Sequential recall

A

In the order they were presented in

101
Q

Who were the participants in Baddeley’s experiment?

A

Men and women from the Applied Psychology Research Unit subject panel, Cambridge. Each group contained approximately 20 participants.

102
Q

What was the IV and DV in Baddeley’s experiment?

A

IV- Acoustic similarity/ semantic similarity
DV - Recall of the list sequence from LTM

103
Q

What were the 4 conditions in Baddeley’s experiment?

A

List A - 10 acoustically similar words
List B - 10 acoustically dissimilar words
List C - 10 semantically similar words
List D - 10 semantically dissimilar words

104
Q

Which were the baseline control groups in Baddeley’s experiment?

A

List A and C

105
Q

How were the words presented in Baddeley’s experiment?

A
  • Each list of 10 words was presented by slide projector
  • Correct order one at a time for 3 seconds and two second slide changeover
106
Q

What happened after presentation of words in Baddeley’s experiment?

A
  • Complete six tasks involving memory for digits
  • Given eight seconds to write down numbers
107
Q

How many times were the learning trials repeated in Baddeley’s experiment?

A

Four learning trials (presented with same list four times)

108
Q

What happened after the fourth learning trial in Baddeley’s experiment?

A

Participants given a 15 minute interference task involving copying eight digit sequences. A surprise retest on the word list sequence was given after.

109
Q

What were the results in Baddeley’s experiment?

A

Recall of acoustically similar sounding words and acoustically dissimilar sounding words was not statistically significant. Acoustic does not affect LTM.
Semantically similar words were more difficult to learn than dissimilar words.

110
Q

What did Baddeley conclude?

A

STM is largely acoustic and LTM uses semantic coding

111
Q

What statistical test did Baddeley use?

A

Mann-Whitney U test:
- looking for a difference
- interval data (number of recall)
- independent groups design

112
Q

What were Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil’s aims?

A
  1. How digit span changed from 5 - 17 years old. To investigate the capacity of the phonological loop and its differences in ages.
  2. Whether digit span was affected by age and dementia
  3. If development patterns found in the Spanish study matched English study
113
Q

Who were the participants in Part 1 of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil’s study?

A

570 volunteer Spanish participants from schools in Madrid.

114
Q

What was the IV and DV in Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil’s study?

A

IV- age
DV- digit span

115
Q

How was digit span measured in Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil’s study?

A

Experimenter read aloud sequences of digits, one per second. Read increasing sequences of digits to recall in correct order.

116
Q

What were the results in Part 1 of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil’s study?

A

5 years - 3.76
6-8 years - 4.34
9-11 years - 5.13
12-14 years - 5.46
15-17 years - 5.83

117
Q

What did Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil conclude in Part 1?

A

Digit span increased with age from 5 - 17 years

118
Q

What did Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil find about Spanish and English digit span?

A

Spanish figures were about one digit span below English speakers. Due to differences in word length as Spanish words take longer to say, so takes more space in the phonological loop.

119
Q

What did Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil conclude about Spanish and English digit spans?

A

Digit span in Spanish population is significantly shorter than English speaking cultures, due to word length effect associated with digits.

120
Q

What is the key question?

A

Can we use Working Memory to understand and treat Dyslexia?

Psychology (7 decks)

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