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Endo > SM_171b: Introduction to the Endocrine System and Physiology / Pathophysiology > Flashcards

SM_171b: Introduction to the Endocrine System and Physiology / Pathophysiology Flashcards

1
Q

Exocrine glands are ____ and ____

A

Exocrine glands are ducts and lumen / surfaces

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2
Q

Endocrine glands are ____ and ____

A

Endocrine glands are chemical messengers and blood stream

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3
Q

Endocrine action is ____

A

Endocrine action is the hormone is distributed in the blood and binds to distant target cells

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4
Q

Paracrine action is ____

A

Paracrine action is when the hormone acts locally by diffusing from its source to target cells in the neighborhood

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5
Q

Autocrine action is ____

A

Autocrine action is when the hormone acts on the same cells that produced it

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6
Q

Most hormones are controlled by ____

A

Most hormones are controlled by negative feedback

  • Hormones are released in response to stimuli
  • Travel through the circulatory system to reach target cells with specific receptors
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7
Q

Three chemical classes of hormones are ____, ____, and ____

A

Three chemical classes of hormones are polypeptides, steroids, and amines

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8
Q

Peptide / protein hormones ____ in size, are often produced as ____, and are ____ soluble

A

Peptide / protein hormones vary in size, are often produced as inactive precursors that are proteolytically cleaved to the active form, and are water soluble

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9
Q

Steroid hormones are derived from ____ and are ____ soluble

A

Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and are lipid soluble

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10
Q

Describe the types of steroid hormones

A

Types of steorid hormones

  • Glucocorticoids: cortisol
  • Mineralocorticoids: aldosterone
  • Androgens: testosterone
  • Estrogens: estradiol, estrone
  • Progestogens: progesterone
  • Sterols: Vitamin D
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11
Q

The two groups of hormones derived from the amino acid tyrosine are ____ and ____

A

The two groups of hormones derived from the amino acid tyrosine are thyroid hormones and catecholamines

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12
Q

____ occurs when the output of a system acts to oppose changes to the input of the system

A

Negative feedback occurs when the output of a system acts to oppose changes to the input of the system

(thermostat)

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13
Q

Describe the interplay between insulin and glucagon

A

Ibterplay between insulin and glucagon

  1. Increased glucose
  2. Insulin release from beta cells
  3. Fat / muscle glucose uptake (effectors)
  4. Decreased glucose
  5. Glucagon release from alpha cells
  6. Liver gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
  7. Cycle continues
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14
Q

Describe the hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ system

A

Hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ system

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15
Q

____ occurs when the output of a system acts to enhance the changes to the input of the system

A

Positive feedback loop occurs when the output of a system acts to enhance the changes to the input of the system

  • Contraction in childbirth -> oxytocin released -> further contractions -> contractions increase in amplitude and frequency
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16
Q

Stress leads to a positive feedback loop in the HPA axis via ____

A

Stress leads to a positive feedback loop in the HPA axis via increased action of ACTH from the pituitary on the adrenal glands

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17
Q

____ is an example of a hormone excess syndrome

A

Benign adenoma producing excess hormones is an example of a hormone excess syndrome

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18
Q

Surgical removal of a gland, autoimmune destruction of a gland, congenital defects of glandular development, and congenital mutations of genes for hormones or enzymes involved in hormone synthesis can prompt a _____ syndrome

A

Surgical removal of a gland, autoimmune destruction of a gland, congenital defects of glandular development, and congenital mutations of genes for hormones or enzymes involved in hormone synthesis can prompt a hormone deficiency syndrome

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19
Q

____ is connected to the hypothalamus by hypothalamic-pituitary portal vessels

A

Anterior pituitary is connected to the hypothalamus by hypothalamic-pituitary portal vessels

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20
Q

Anterior pituitary produces 6 peptide hormones: ____, ____, ____, ____, ____, and ____

A

Anterior pituitary produces 6 peptide hormones:

  • Prolactin
  • Growth hormone
  • Thyroid stimulating hormone
  • Adrenocorticotropic hormone
  • Follicle stimulating hormone
  • Luteinizing hormone
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21
Q

Describe syndromes due to oversecretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary

A

Syndromes due to oversecretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary

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22
Q

Describe results of hypopituitarism

A

Hypopituitarism

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23
Q

Describe the anatomy of the neurohypophysis

A

Anatomy of the neurohypophysis

  • Magnocellular neurons originate in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei and project through the stalk and diaphragma sella
  • Regulated by neurons from osmoreceptors, baroreceptors, and emetic center
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24
Q

Neurohypophysis produces ____ and ____

A

Neurohypophysis produces ADH and oxytocin

  • ADH also called vasopressin (AVP)
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25
Q

____ and ____ are diseases of the posterior pituitary

A

Diabetes insipidus and increased vasopressin secretion are diseases of the posterior pituitary

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26
Q

Diabetes insipidus involves _____ from the _____

A

Diabetes insipidus involves decreased vasopressin release from the posterior pituitary

  • Causes failure of kidney to reabsorb water -> failure to concentrate urine -> increased urine volume and thirst
27
Q

____ secretion from the ____ can increase kidney water retention, resulting in excessive dilution of blood solutes (hyponatremia) and water intoxication

A

Increased vasopressin secretion from the posterior pituitary can increase kidney water retention, resulting in excessive dilution of blood solutes (hyponatremia) and water intoxication

28
Q

Adrenal glands involve two exocrine glands: ____ and ____

A

Adrenal glands involve two exocrine glands: adrenal cortex (outer) and adrenal medulla (inner)

29
Q

Adrenal cortex secretes ____ including ____, ____, and ____

A

Adrenal cortex secretes lipid-based steroid hormones (corticosteroids) including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens

  • Mineralocorticoids: aldosterone
  • Glucocorticoids: cortisol
  • Androgens: androstenedione, dehydroepidandrosterone
30
Q

Adrenal meulla secretes ____ and ____

A

Adrenal meulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine

31
Q

Describe aldosterone

A

Aldosterone

  • Mineralocorticoid
  • Secreted by adrenal cortex in response to decreased blood volume or BP (terminal hormone in RAAS system)
  • Prompts distal and collecting tubules in kidney to reabsorb more Na -> water passively follows -> blood volume increases
32
Q

Describe cortisol

A

Cortisol

  • Glucocorticoid
  • Stress response: physical, psychological, physiological
  • Regulates or supports important homeostatic functions including water balance
  • Keeps blood glucose levels high enough to support brain activity
  • Catabolic: breaks down protein
  • Redirects circulating lymphocytes to lymphoid and peripheral tissues where pathogens usually are
  • Depresses immune system and inflammatory response
33
Q

Primary adrenal insufficiency is ____

A

Primary adrenal insufficiency is Addison’s disease

  • Atrophy or hypocortisolism
34
Q

Primary adrenal hypercortisolism is _____

A

Primary adrenal hypercortisolism is Cushing’s syndrome (adenoma, carcinoma)

35
Q

____ results from mutations in enzymes for cortisol synthesis

A

Congenital hyperplasia results from mutations in enzymes for cortisol synthesis

36
Q

Thyroid gland produces ____ and ____

A

Thyroid gland produces thyroid hormone and calcitonin

37
Q

____ is a hormone produced in the thyroid gland that regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism

A

Calcitonin is a hormone produced in the thyroid gland that regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism

38
Q

Thyroid is composed of ____

A

Thyroid is composed of spherical follicles

  • Follicle cells: produce thyroglobulin (precursor of thyroxine)
  • Colloid lumen contains thyroglobulin
  • Parafollicular C cells produce calcitonin
39
Q

The two thyroid hormones are ____ and ____ and are derived from modification of ____

A

The two thyroid hormones are tetraiodothyronine (T4, thyroxine) and triidothyronine (T3) and are derived from modification of tyrosine

40
Q

Thyroid hormone ____ and ____

A

Thyroid hormone increases basal metabolic rate and affects many target cells throughout the body

  • Basal metabolic rate: rate at which body uses oxygen to transform nutrients (carbohydrates, fats, proteins) into energy
  • Protein synthesis, bone growth, neuronal maturation, cell differentiation
41
Q
A
42
Q

Describe calcitonin

A

Calcitonin

  • Secreted from thyroid parafollicular C cells when blood Ca levels are high
  • Lowers Ca by slowing Ca-releasing activity of osteoclasts in bone and increasing Ca excretion by kidney
  • Acts mostly during childhood
  • Producd in excess by medullary cancer which is a rare thyroid cancer
43
Q

Hyperthyroidism is ____ and ____

A

Hyperthyroidism is elevated T4 and T3 levels

  • Suppressed TSH level
  • Hypermetabolism
  • Due to thyroid stimulating IgG
44
Q

Hypothyroidism is ____ and ____

A

Hypothyroidism is decreased T4 and T3 levels

  • Increased TSH level
  • Hypometabolism
  • Usually autoimmune
45
Q

____ are an enlarged thyroid

A

Goiters are an enlarged thyroid

  • Diffuse
  • Nodular
  • Cancer
46
Q

Endemic goiter results from ____ deficiency

A

Endemic goiter results from iodine deficiency

47
Q

Parathyroid glands regulate ____ and secrete ____

A

Parathyroid glands regulate blood Ca levels and secrete parathyroid hormone

  • Embedded or behind in thyroid gland
48
Q

___ cells in parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone

A

Chief cells in parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone

49
Q

Parathyroid hormone functions to ____

A

Parathyroid hormone functions to increase blood Ca concentration

  • Stimulates osteoclasts to release more Ca from bone
  • Decreases excretion of Ca by kidney
  • Activates Vitamin D, which stimulates uptake of Ca from the intestine
50
Q

Hyperparathyroidism is when ____

A

Hyperparathyroidism is when excess PTH from a single adenoma or 4-gland hyperplasia causes hypercalcemia

51
Q

Hypoparathyroidism causes ____

A

Hypoparathyroidism causes hypocalcemia

  • Usually due to inadvertent removal during thyroidectomy, can also be congenital embryopathic or autoimmune
52
Q

Parathyroid hormone activates _____ to _____

A

Parathyroid hormone activates 25-OH-D to 1,25(OH)2D3 (calcitriol)

53
Q

Describe effects of Vitamin D

A

Vitamin D effects

  • Gut: increases Ca absorption
  • Bone: increases Ca mobilization via increased osteoclast number and activity
  • Parathyroid: decreases PTH gene transcription and PTH secretion
54
Q

____ stimulate bone formation, while ____ stimulate bone resorption

A

Osteoblasts stimulate bone formation, while osteoclasts stimulate bone resorption

  • Osteoporosis is when activity of osteoclasts outstrips osteoblasts
55
Q

Adipose tissue is an endocrine organ and secretes _____

A

Adipose tissue is an endocrine organ and secretes adipocytokines

56
Q

Normal basal glucose regulation involves the ____, ____, ____, ____, and ____

A

Normal basal glucose regulation involves the liver, pancreas, fat, muscle, and brain

57
Q

Alpha cells secrete ____

A

Alpha cells secrete glucagon

  • Raises blood glucose, mostly in periphery
58
Q

Beta cells secrete ____

A

Beta cells secrete insulin

  • Lowers blood glucose, mostly central
59
Q

Delta cells secrete ____

A

Delta cells secrete somatostatin

  • Inhibits glucagon and insulin
60
Q

Describe the etiologic classification of diabetes

A

Diabetes etiologic classification

  • Type 1: beta-cell destruction with lack of insulin
  • Type 2: insulin resistance with insulin deficiency
  • Other specific types
  • Gestational: first diagnosed during pregnan
61
Q

Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes involves ____ and ____

A

Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes involves insulin resistance and diminished insulin secretion

62
Q

____ may result from excess insulin / nutrient intake during the treatment of diabetes

A

Hypoglycemia may result from excess insulin / nutrient intake during the treatment of diabetes

  • Rare tumors of pancreas (insulinomas) can cause hypoglycemia
63
Q

Pheochromocytoma may secrete ____ including ____ and ____ which cause hypertension

A

Pheochromocytoma may secrete catecholamines including epinephrine and norepinephrine which cause hypertension

Endo (25 decks)

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