skill aquisition Flashcards
define skill
the learned ability to bring about predetermined results with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both
define open skill
a skill performed in an unpredictable environment
define closed skill
a skill performed in a predictable environment
define gross skill
a skill that uses large muscle groups
define fine skill
a skill that uses small muscle groups
define self-paced skill
when the performer controls the start and the speed of the skill
define externally paced skill
when the performer has no control over the start and the speed of the skill
define discrete skill
a skill that has a clear beginning and end
define serial skill
a skill that contains several discrete skills in order to make a more integrated movement
define low organised skill
a skill that is easily broken into parts
define high organised skill
a skill that is not easily broken into parts
define simple skill
a skill that requires few decisions when being performed
define complex skill
a skill that requires decision making using lots of information when performed
continua (x6)
Continuity - discrete (very clear start/finish), serial (chain of discrete skills), continuous (no clear start/finish)
Organisation - high (hard to break down), low (easy to break down)
Environmental influence - open (unpredictable and changing), closed (predictable)
Extent of muscles used - gross (large muscle groups), fine (smaller muscle groups)
Control and rate of execution - self paced (performer controls start and speed of skill), externally paced (no control of start or speed)
Degree of difficulty - simple (few decisions), complex (many decisions)
state the characteristics of skill
A - aesthetically pleasing
C - consistent
E - efficient
F - fluent
A - accurate
C - controlled
E - economical
Explain using a sports example justification of skill placement on each of the continua
A skill classified as one thing can change in different situations and as the game or performance develops, skills can be classified in different ways. E.g. isolated practice of basketball dribble, players lined up and practicing in turn without opposition (closed), practice of 3v2 or in game (open)
define transfer
the effect of learning and performance of one skill on the learning and performance of another
define positive transfer
when the learning of one skill helps the learning of another
define negative transfer
when the learning of one skill hinders the learning of another
define zero transfer
when the learning of one skill has no impact on the learning of another
define bilateral transfer
when the learning of one skill is passed across the body from limb to limb
what is a sports example of positive transfer
a basketball pass and netball pass (similar actions)
what is a sports example of negative transfer
tennis serve (uses the arm) and badminton serve (uses the wrist) - similar environments but different movements - leads to confusion
what is a sports example of zero transfer
the swimming arm action and foot placement in rock climbing
what is a sports example of bilateral transfer
a right-footed footballer being encouraged to use their left foot so their left foot becomes equal to their right
how can a coach ensure positive transfer
•positive transfer can be encouraged by making sure that training is realistic - the use of cones or rugby tackle bags is replaced by real people in small games
•the coach should make sure the skill is well learned before moving onto an advanced skill - slow, planned progression
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—>the coach could reward and reinforce the players for the correct adaptation of positive transfer by praising players for using skills with similar actions
Define whole practice
Practicing the skill in its entirety
Define Whole-part-whole practice
Assessing the skill, identifying a weakness to practice, then putting the skill back together
Define progress part practice
Practicing the first part of the skill then adding parts gradually, sometimes called chaining
Define chaining
Linking the sub-routines, or parts of the task, together in order when practicing
Evaluate whole practice
Use when: skill is fast, highly organised, can be broken down, simple, feel of whole task is required, advanced performer, links need maintaining
E.g. golf swing
Advantages: create images (memory), realistic (positive transfer), consistency, good habits, automatic
Disadvantages: unnecessary demands (unable to cope), fatigue if no break, too much info to process
Evaluate whole-part-whole practice
Use when: beginner doing complex task
Advantages: motivation after correcting weakness, immediate feedback, improve performance, correct errors, integration of sub-routines maintained, maintain feel for whole skill
Disadvantages: negative transfer if parts not put whole in same session, time consuming
Evaluate progressive part practice
Used when: skill is low organised, can be broken down so each part is clear, complex skill - feature isolated
Advantages: focus on one aspect, rest (reduce fatigue), increase motivation from success of a part, improve confidence
Disadvantages: time consuming, neglect feel of whole task, negative transfer between each sequence of the skill
Define massed practice
No rest intervals
Define distributed practice
Rest intervals
Define mental practice
Going over the skill in the mind without movement
Define varied practice
Changing the practice type + the practice drills
Evaluate massed practice
When Skill is: discrete, simple, closed, highly organised, self-paced
Advantages: forms motor programmes, increase fitness, enhances over learning, good for habitual responses, efficient
Disadvantages: no time for feedback, fatigue, too demanding
E.g. basketball player practicing a free throw
Evaluate distributed practice
when Skill is: continuous, complex, low organised, can break it down, serial, externally paced
Advantages: allows recovery, less mental pressure, allows mental rehearsal/feedback, reduces danger
Disadvantages: time consuming, negative transfer.
E.g. a Swimmer practicing stroke technique in training
Evaluate varied practice
When skill is: complex, easy part at first then add, open, externally paced
Advantages: builds a schema, gives motivation, allow adaptation Disadvantages: time consuming, possibility of a negative transfer, fatigue, too demanding
E.g. players practicing a football pass
Evaluate mental practice
When Skill is: serial, complex, novice + expert, internal: emotions, external: mental picture of environment
Advantages: improves reaction time, builds motor programmes, builds confidence, controls anxiety
Disadvantages: must be correct, environment must be calm
E.g. a performer on the trampoline going over the routine before competition
State the 3 stages of learning
•cognitive
•associative
•autonomous
Define + Explain the cognitive stage of learning
The first stage of learning used by a novice. Understanding + sub-routines explored by trial + error.
•think carefully about their actions (understanding is limited)
•extrinsic feedback required
•slow + uncoordinated movements
•motor programmes not yet developed
•trial + error approach
E.g. novice hockey player working out the actions of a pass
Define + Explain the associative stage of learning
The second stage of learning as motor programmes are developed + performance is smoother.
•movement from competent beginner to accomplished performer
•lots of practice
•trial + error may still be used
•more intrinsic feedback
•moving towards elite
•smoother, more controlled + coordinated movement
Define + Explain the autonomous stage of learning
The final stage of learning used by expert when movement is detailed + specific.
•actions are fluent, efficient + automatic
•concentrate on finer details (basics are habitual)
•motor programme fully developed
Define learning
A permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice
Define performance
A temporary occurrence that can change from time to time because of many external + internal influences
Define feedback
Information to aid error correction
Define positive feedback
Encouragement
Define negative feedback
Error correction
Define extrinsic feedback
From an outside source
Define intrinsic feedback
From within
Define knowledge of results
Concerns the outcome
Define knowledge of performance
About technique
Link stages of learning + type of feedback
Cognitive - positive, extrinsic, result
Associative - a mixture of everything
Autonomous - negative, intrinsic, performance
Define plateau
A period of no improvement in performance
Define + explain drive reduction
An end-of-task period when performance gets worse
Performer gained success + initial drive to succeed lost, challenge of mastering task overcome + new challenge or extension needed to maintain motivation
Explain the learning curve graph
A graphic illustration showing how rate of learning of performer doing a closed skill over a period of time can vary
Stage 1 - slow rate of learning + poor performance, new task + cognitive stage of learning
Stage 2 - rapid acceleration in rate of learning, mastering task + gain some success, reinforcement + motivation
Stage 3 - no improvement in rate of learning + plateau in performance
Stage 4 - period towards end of task, performance decreases due to fatigue
State causes of the plateau
•lack of motivation
•boredom
•coaching
•limit of ability
•targets set too low
•fatigue
State solutions to the plateau effect
•task extended, new targets/goals
•new coach
•more praise + positive reinforcement from coach
•take rests
•more variety to task
•plateau explained to performer (don’t take personal responsibility for lack of improvement)
•feedback
Define visual guidance
Guidance that can be seen, a demonstration
Define verbal guidance
An explanation
Define manual guidance
Physical support
Define mechanical guidance
An artificial aid
Evaluate the methods of guidance
Visual:
Advantages - creates mental image, highlights specific weakness
Disadvantages - must be accurate or will be copied incorrectly, if too much information can cause confusion
Verbal:
Advantages - creates mental image, gives technical or tactical advice
Disadvantages - too much information can cause confusion, may lose concentration, may not understand technical terms, may give wrong type of feedback
Manual:
Advantages - eliminates danger, builds confidence, decreases fear + anxiety
Disadvantages - if over-used = effect performance, interfere with feel or lose confidence, closeness to coach may be off-putting
Mechanical:
Advantages - builds confidence, eliminates danger, early feel of whole task, can be used with disabled or injured
Disadvantages - if over-used = interfere with feel, loss of confidence, not feel independent so lose motivation, incorrect intrinsic feedback
Define operant conditioning
The use of reinforcement to ensure that correct responses are repeated
Define behaviourist theory
This attempts to explain how actions can be linked to stimuli
Define satisfier
An action that promotes a pleasant feeling so that responses are repeated
Define annoyer
An action that creates unease to promote the avoidance of incorrect responses
Define positive reinforcement
A pleasant stimulus after the correct response (praise / certificate)
Define negative reinforcement
Taking away an unpleasant stimulus after the correct response (negative criticism)
Define punishment
An unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions recurring (red card)
Explain 3 features of the operant conditioning theory of learning
•trial + error - successful responses rewarded are likely to be repeated
•shapes behaviour - use reinforcement to link correct responses to a stimulus
•manipulates environment - ensure skills are learned - rewarded are repeated
What is stimulus-response bond
Strengthen link between stimulus + response
Define attention
Making the demonstration attractive to the performer
Define retention
Remembering the demonstration and being able to recall it
Define motor production
Having the mental and physical ability to do the task
Define motivation
Having the drive to do the task
State Bandura’s 4 processes that a coach can use to ensure a performer copies a model demonstration
•attention
•retention
•motor production
•motivation
Define MKO
More Knowledgeable Other
Coach or teacher
Define social development
Learning by association with others
Define and explain inter-psychological learning
Learning from others externally
Advice, feedback + tactical knowledge
Define and explain intra-psychological learning
Learning using others or an MKO to develop knowledge
Internally analyse, think + construct action
Define constructivism
Building up learning in stages, based on the current level of performance
Define zone of proximal development
the next stage of learning based on the performer’s needs, expectations and current level of performance
State the 3 stages of Vygotsky’s proximal development
•what can I do alone?
•what can I do with help?
•what can I not do yet?
Define insight learning
Using experience + understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill
Advantages of insight theory of learning
•concentrates on whole task - good for realistic situation
•worked out by athlete - self-satisfaction + intrinsic motivation
•think for themselves - develops cognitive process
