psychology Flashcards
what are the four features of trait theory of personality
•an individual is born with innate characteristics
•the behaviour will remain consistent in most situations
•behavior becomes predictable
•the traits are stable + stay the same in different situations
what are the two problems with the predictability of trait theory
•behaviour could be temporarily impacted by a situation
•mistakes in past experiences can alternate behaviour
what are the four features of the Social Learning Theory (SLT)
•we’re not born with characteristics but learn them from others
•personality traits are developed through socialisation with significant others
•behaviour is copied after consistently being seen or interacting live
how is behaviour learnt (SLT model)
observe -> identify -> reinforce -> copy
what is Lewin’s formula
B=f(PxE)
behaviour = function(personality x environment)
what are the three stages in Hollander’s model
•core = stable and solid (beliefs and values)
•typical response = the usual response a player would make in a given situation
•role-related behaviour = further changes in behaviour may be needed depending on the sport/position/role
define trait theory
the theory that behaviour is determined by innate characteristics
define traits
characteristics people are born with and are stable
define social learning theory (SLT)
behaviour changes depending on surroundings - socialising - they are learnt from other people and significant others
define significant others
role-models, friends, family - people our behaviour changes for because of their influence
define socialisation
associating with other people and picking up their behaviour
define interationists perspective
the belief behaviour can be influenced by traits and socialisation
define attitude
a value or belief towards ‘something’ (attitude object)
define triadic model
the parts of an attitude - cognitive, affective, behavioural
define cognitive component
your beliefs
define affective component
feelings and emotions, how they are interpreted
define behavioural component
the actions and habits of the performer
define behavioural component
actions and habits
define cognitive dissonance
a conflict in thinking causes a lack of harmony and gives an uneasy feeling so the performer is motivated to change their existing attitude
define persuasion
sports performers can be talked into changing their attitudes but it isn’t easy
identify 5 ways attitudes are formed
•socialisation - associating with others and pick up their opinions and values
•learn attitudes from significant others
•learn if behaviour is repeated
•repeat successful behaviour and attitudes
•develop positive attitude from praise for a performance
explain cognitive dissonance using a sports example
A rugby player may be reluctant to use a ‘dance fit’ technique. The coach points out the dancer can do intense exercises for an hour session where as, the rugby player has to rest after a 40 minute half- the rugby player may think again.
describe persuasive communication
the communication must be relevant, important, understood, from someone of high status and good timing
use a sports example to explain persuasive communication
If a rugby player looses a game they may realise something needs to change so a role model/ expert should communicate with them.
Define arousal
a state of activation experienced by sports performers - an energised state, a readiness to perform, a drive to achieve
define drive theory
as arousal increases so does performance - P=f(DxH)
define dominant response
the stand-out response that the performers thinks is correct
define inverted-U theory
arousal and performance - increased arousal improves performance to an optimal point at moderate levels of arousal
define catastrophe theory
increased arousal improves performance to optimal - dramatic reduction in performance when arousal increases past optimal
define somatic anxiety
physiological anxiety - muscular tension - increase heart rate
define cognitive anxiety
psychological anxiety - loss of concentration - worry about performance
define zone
area of controlled arousal and high level performance
define peak flow
ultimate intrinsic experience felt by athletes from positive mental attitude, confident, focus, efficiency
identify 3 causes of increased arousal in sport
•increase in level of competition (major event)
•effect of an audience
•frustrating circumstances (not playing well or losing)
outline 3 features of the drive theory of arousal
•more drive = more chance of improved performance due to more effort
•arousal increase = performance increase
•increased motivation = increased drive
describe the problem with the drive theory of arousal
•increased drive won’t always improve performance - it can’t keep improving
•at high arousal, less information is processed - focus on dominant response (bad in beginner, good in expert)
explain the relationship between dominant response and the task (complex vs simple)
if the task is simple there is little information to process so performer can do well at high arousal.
if the task is complex there is a lot of information to process - cues may be ignored and ability to process is reduced at high arousal
outline 3 features of the inverted-U theory of arousal
•performance improves up to the optimal point - usually moderate level of arousal
•under and over around can be equally bad for performance
•optimum level of arousal can vary - skill level, personality, task
explain the relationship between the inverted-U theory and athlete experience
experts can deal with pressure so dominant response is correct so can perform at high arousal
beginners cannot deal with pressure so operate best at low arousal
explain the relationship between the inverted-U theory and athlete personality
extrovert - low activation - can tolerate increase in arousal
introvert - high adrenaline - perform best at low arousal
explain the relationship between the inverted-U theory and task
•complex - low arousal (process lots of information)
•simple - high arousal (less decisions)
•gross - high arousal (large muscle group movements)
•fine - low arousal - precise control
outline 3 features of the catastrophe theory of arousal
•dramatic reduction in performance
•performer panics - increase in arousal - decline in performance
•increased arousal - performance peaks at optimal level
describe the attempt to recover and identify two factors that determine the success
•the player may try to regain control by reducing anxiety + arousal - performance may gradually return to optimal
•performer may fail to control arousal -panic or anxiety is too high so arousal increases more
•performance declines
state two symptoms of somatic and cognitive anxiety
•somatic - increased heart rate, sweaty palms
•cognitive - loss of concentration, worry about performance
outline two features of the Zone of Optimal Functioning (ZOF) theory of arousal
•optimal arousal levels
•”zone” = best level of arousal for maximum confidence + control
state four techniques a performer can use to find their zone
•mental practice
•relaxation
•visualisation
•positive self-talk
describe why performance improves when in the “zone”
- things seem to flow effortlessly
- reach state of supreme confidence + remain calm under pressure
- feel in control of actions + focused on
identify three features of the peak flow experience
•timing, action, movement, appear perfect
•subconscious feeling of control - effortless focus
•positive attitude, confident, relaxed, anxiety control
outline three factors which may disrupt the peak flow experience
•poor mental preparation - fail to reach optimal arousal
•environmental influence - pressure from crowd
•injury or failure
Define and explain anxiety
A level of nerves and irrational thinking, a negative response to a threatening sporting situation. Comes as a result of the player’s perception of the situation - performers may react differently to the same situation
Define and explain competitive trait anxiety
A disposition to suffer from nervousness in most sporting situations. When a player feels nerves before most games - could be part of their genetic make up - anxious regardless of the importance of the event
Define and explain Competitive state anxiety
A nervous response to specific sporting situations e.g. more anxiety when taking a penalty. Can depend on the mood of the player at the time.
Define and explain somatic anxiety
A physiological response to a threat/ the belief of the lack of ability to complete the task. Symptoms - increased heart rate, sweating, muscular tension, sickness
Define and explain cognitive anxiety
A psychological response such as worrying about losing, refers to the irrational thinking and worries that may occur during and before performance - if a performer thinks they don’t have the ability to complete a task due to anxiety
Define and explain questionnaire
A set of questions to measure or assess something (anxiety), (Performer answer a series of questions about their emotions in different situations - quick, cheap, efficient - can be invalid)
Define and explain Sports Competitive Anxiety Test (SCAT)
A questionnaire used by sports psychologists to measure anxiety (15 statements - measure response to competitive sporting situations)
Define and explain Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory (CSAI)
A questionnaire used by sports psychologists to measure anxiety (taken 1 hour before event for accuracy - tests cognitive, somatic and confidence - coach can plan accordingly)
Define and explain observation
Gaining a measure of anxiety simply by watching the performer in training or competition - true to life - opinion of observer need to know how normally act (see changes), time consuming, multiple observers, person can’t know observed
Link between competitive trait + state anxiety
An individual with high trait anxiety is more likely to experience high state anxiety when faced with a stressful situation
Explain the cognitive and somatic diagram
Increased somatic = increased performance till point then increased somatic = decreased performance- impair increased cognitive = decreased performance
Explain the diagram for anxiety and time till competition
Somatic is high before competition and lowers during. Cognitive is high much earlier.
Anxiety measures?
3 methods to measure: self-report questionnaires, observation and physiological testing - very useful for coaches as they get knowledge of athletes so they can make decisions (who to take penalty - deal with anxiety)
Physiological measures?
Measure physical response - increase heart rate, increase sweating, increase breathing, increase hormone secretion - factual, in training or in competition - train coaches to use devises (cost), may restrict movement, performer is aware
define motivation
a drive to succeed
Define intrinsic motivation
Motivation from within
define extrinsic motivation
motivation from an outside source
Define tangible rewards
Rewards that can be touched or held, physical
define intangible rewards
non-physical rewards
what is the problem with tangible rewards?
•if too much emphasis is placed on tangible rewards, it may lead to a loss in intrinsic movtivation. a trophy may become the norm and players may compete to get the reward not for the value of the game.
•intrinsic motivation is better because it is stronger and longer lasting
Strategies and tactics for motivation?
•rewards and incentives early on
•fun and enjoyable activities
•point out health benefits of the task
•point out role models
•praise
•set achievable goals or targets
•use feedback to inspire and correct errors
define aggression
the intent to harm outside the rules; hostile behaviour.
Define assertion
Well-motivated behaviour within the rules
define instrumental aggression
has an intent but is within the rules.
Define instinct theory
When aggression is spontaneous and innate
define catharsis
cleansing the emotions; using sport as an outlet for aggression.
Define aggressive cue hypothesis
Suggests that aggression is caused by a learned trigger
define social learning theory
learning by associating with others and copying behaviour.
identify the characteristics of aggression
•the intent to harm
•outside the rules
•reactive
•out of control
•deliberate and hostile
Identify the characteristics of assertion
•controlled
•well motivated
•generally within the rules
•goal directed
•not intended to harm
explain the problem with aggression and assertion
aspects of both definitions occur in some scenarios - it is called the grey area. this is seen in a boxing match.
Describe the problem with instinct theory
Not all aggression is reactive and spontaneous. Some is learned and pre intended - sometimes players aggression will increase throughout the game
identify the problem with the social learning theory
Aggression can be instinctive and reactive rather than being learned.
Describe ways to prevent aggression
•don’t reinforce aggressive acts in training
•punish aggression with fines
•punish players by sending them off
•substitute an aggressive player or remove them from the situation
•reinforce non-aggression
• talk to players to calm them down
•apply rules consistently and fairly
•point out responsibilities
•set non-aggressive goals
•channel aggression into assertion
•apply sanctions immediately
define audience
those who just watch the event.
Define co-actors
Those who are doing the same task but not involved in the competition
define competitive co-actors
those who are in direct competition
Define social reinforcers
Those who have a direct influence on the event
define social inhibition
the negative effect of the presence of others on performance.
Define social facilitation
The positive effect of the presence of the others on performance
define evaluation apprehension
the perceived fear of being judged.
List the four types of viewers
•audience (passive) - people who are watching (spectators)
•co-actors (passive) - doing the same thing
•competitors (interactive) - competitive co-actors
•social reinforcers (interactive)
what is the difference between passive and interactive others?
passive do not exert a direct influence on the event but their presence increases arousal. a performer’s response to being watched depends on their level of skill.
identify three ways to limit the effect of social inhibition
•familiarisation - getting the players familiar with a crowd
•gradually introducing evaluation
•improving focus and concentration
Define cohesion
The tendency for individuals to work together to achieve their goals, the forces that keep the group members on task
define co-action
when others do the task at the same time but separately.
Define interaction
When a group works together to produce results
define task cohesion
individuals working together to achieve an end result.
Define social cohesion
Individuals relating to each other to interact in the group
describe the four group dynamics
•a collective identity (can be identified easily e.g. same kit)
•interaction (operate in own role and link with the role of other members)
•communication (helps interaction, should communicate non-verbally)
•a shared goal or purpose (all the team should have the same goal with maximum motivation)
List and describe Tuchman’s four stages of group formation
•forming - group comes together and gets to know each other
•storming - individuals compete with others to establish positions, status or role in the team
•norming - the team settles down and co-operates, with the intention of achieving their goals
•performing - members are interactive and work hard together to achieve their goals
describe the difference between co-action and interaction
•co-action = every team member working hard at the same thing.
•interaction = each player may have a different role and they must be interpreted with the other team members.
Define actual productivity
The outcome of group performance
Define team
A group that has interaction, shared goals, an identity and communication
Define potential productivity
The best performance based on player ability and group resources
Define faulty processes
The things that go wrong to reduce group outcomes and prevent group potential being reached
Define and explain social loafing
Individual loss of motivation in a team player due to a lack of performance identification when individual efforts are not recognised.These players take easy options in game + make little contribution to team cause. Causes: lack of confidence in ability to compete with opposition, negative attitude (not liking position), poor leadership of coach or captain (no incentives or reinforcement) - player believes effort won’t be recognised or valued, not understand or accept role, lack fitness, goals set by coach may be too general + lack meaning, sub-groups or cliques.
Define and explain the ringelmann effect
When group performance decreases with group size. A study of the tug of war - individuals tried hard on rope pull when efforts highlighted but decreased effort in team of 8.
Explain the Steiner model
actual productivity = potential producivity - losses due to faulty processes
actual productivity looks at the performance of the team, result/end outcome: a win, loss or draw
potential productivity - teams best possible outcome is performance is perfect. Group potential affected by skill level + ability compared to opponents + task difficulty. The best players doesn’t mean best outcome - team needs cohesion
Faulty processes - what goes wrong - factors preventing the team from reaching its true potential: 1) coordination problems + 2) motivational problems
1) player fail to listen to coaches instructions/ employ incorrect tactics/ fail to communicate with team/ misunderstand role in team
2) over or under arousal/ lose drive to win - resultant reduction in effort + concentration.
Diagram to summarise faulty processes in group performance
Faulty processes
|
Coordination <——v——> motivation
problems: problems:
•Tactics •Social loafing
•Strategies •Ringelmann effect
•Communication
•Interaction required
in sport
Explain strategies to avoid social loafing
-coach should recognise + reward efforts of players
-give players specific roles to play in the team
-highlight individual performance - tackle counts, number of assists or pass completion rates
-goal-setting strategy - coach set goals that are realistic + specific + not just based on result
-coach use video analysis to highlight performance of individual + use feedback to evaluate + assess perfomance
-use small-sided games + vary practice to maintain motivation + avoid social loafing in training
-make sure conditioning is up to standard to keep players fit
Define validity
Describes whether the data collected actually measures what it sets out to measure
Define reliability
Refers to the degree to which data collection is consistent and stable over time
Define goal setting and give 3 reasons it is used
Setting targets
1) increase motivation
2) increase confidence
3) regulate and sustain effort
Define outcome goal and give an example
A goal set against the performance of others and based on a result e.g. an athlete could be set goal of a top-three finish - if realistic, motivation maintained
Define task-orientated goal
Getting a better performance
Define performance goals and give an example
When the athlete sets a goal to better their own performance rather than comparing to others e.g. achieving a pb in swimming
Define process goal and give an example
Based on improving technique e.g. to achieve a pb a swimmer may improve their techniques on the arm action and at the start of the race
Goal setting summary
Process goals -> performance goals -> outcome or product goals
What does SMARTER stand for
S - specific
M - measured
A - achievable
R - realistic
T - time bound
E - evaluate
R - redo
