Skill Acquisition & Sport Psychology Year 1 Flashcards
Using CEMPOD identify the six skill continua.
Continuity, Environmental, Muscular Involvement, Pacing, Organisation, Difficulty.
What is a motor programme?
A series of sub-routines stored in the long-term memory.
What is a sub-routine?
An individual movement or component of a skill or technique.
Describe an Open Skill
The environment is changing & others affect the skill.
Much information to process
Often externally paced
Skills will require variations
Movements will require adjustments
Describe a Closed Skill
Not affected by the environment
Stable and predictable
Internally/Self-Paced
Describe a Gross Skill
Involves large muscle movements
Involves large muscle groups
Major body movement skills
Describe a Fine Skill
Involve small muscle movements
Involve small muscle groups
Small bodily movements
Describe a Discrete Skill
Skill has a definite beginning and end
Usually brief in nature – a single skill
If a skill is repeated, have to start from the beginning
Describe a Serial Skill
A number of discrete skills put together to make a sequence or series
The order in which the distinct elements is important
Each movement is both a stimulus and a response
Describe a Continuous Skill
No clear beginning or end of skill
Activity continues for unspecified time
Usually performed for a longer period of time
Describe a Self-Paced Skill
A performer decides when to perform or start the skill
Performer decided the rate at which the skill is performed
More closed skills e.g. shot put
Describe an Externally-Paced Skill
Performance of the action is determined by external sources
Involves the performer in reaction
More open skill (e.g. white water canoeing)
Describe a Simple Skill
Little information or stimuli to process.
Few decisions
Time to use feedback.
Few sub-routines
Describe a Complex Skill
Large amounts of information to process
Affected by the environment
Less time to use feedback
Many sub-routines to perform in correct order at correct time
Describe a High Organisation Skill
Skill cannot be split into sub-routines
Sub-routines have to be practised as part of whole movement
Describe a Low Organisation Skill
Sub-routines can be easily identified from overall movement
Sub-routines can be practised in isolation from overall movement
What are the 3 phases of learning?
Cognitive, Associative, Autonomous
Describe a learner in the cognitive phase
The learner is trying to create a ‘mental picture’ of the skill
Lots of trial and error
Essential that success reinforced by performer experiencing success or being told by the coach/ teacher
Describe a learner in the associative phase
Performer practices the skills and compares or associated movements with the mental mage
Feedback occurs (intrinsic and extrinsic)
Beginners start to eliminate mistakes, and refine skills.
Motor programmes aren’t grooved
Describe a learner in the autonomous phase
Movements becoming automatic or subconscious
Distractions ignored (selective attention)
Focus on tactical strategies
Motor programmes fully grooved and stored in LTM.
Identify 4 types of guidance
Visual, Verbal, Manual, Mechanical.
What is the difference between manual & mechanical guidance?
Manual - Physical support and movement from the teacher/coach.
Mechanical - Using equipment to support motor development.
Identify 8 methods of practice
Whole
Part
Whole Part Whole
Progressive Part
Massed
Distributed
Varied
Fixed
What is whole practice?
Practice by doing the total or complete or entire movement/not breaking skill into subroutines or parts
What is part practice?
Practice by splitting or breaking down skill into subroutines or sections
What is whole part whole practice?
Practice the complete skill, then split it into subroutines, and then practice complete skill again.
What is progressive part practice?
Practice in stages that are linked or chained.
What is massed practice?
No or very few rest intervals
What is distributed practice?
Regular breaks built into practice
What is varied practice?
When the practice situation/environment changes.
What is fixed practice?
When the practice situation/environment stays the same.
What are the main two categories of feedback?
Knowledge of Results & Knowledge of Performance
In addition to KR and KP, identify 6 other types of feedback.
Positive, negative, concurrent, terminal, intrinsic, extrinsic.
What is knowledge of results feedback?
Based upon the outcome or result.
What is knowledge of performance feedback?
Based upon the technique and the quality of the movement.
What is intrinsic feedback?
Direct feedback from proprioceptors, known as kinesthesis.
What is concurrent feedback?
Feedback during performance.
What is terminal feedback?
Feedback at the end of performance.
Identify 6 types of transfer.
Positive, Negative, Bilateral, Zero, Proactive, Retroactive,
What is positive transfer?
One skill helps or enhances the learning and performance of another skill.
What is negative transfer?
One skill hinders the learning and performance of another skill.
What is bilateral transfer?
This is the transfer which takes place from one limb to another, sometimes called lateralisation.
What is proactive transfer?
A skill already learned or performed INFLUENCES the learning or performing of a new skill.
What is retroactive transfer?
Learning or performing a new skill INFLUENCES the learning or performing of an OLD skill.
Name three learning theories.
Operant, Observational & Cogntive Learning Theories.
What is operant conditioning?
Learning by conditioning through response to a stimulus.
Strengthening the stimulus-response (SR) bond.
Using reinforcement & punishment.
What is negative reinforcement?
When reinforcement is taken away.
Name Thorndike’s Laws.
Law of Exercise
Law of Readiness
Law of Effect
What is observational learning (social learning) theory?
When behaviour is learned through observing or copying another.
What are the 6 stages of Bandura’s model of observational learning?
Demonstration - Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Motivation - Performance
What is the acronym to remember cognitive learning theory?
PIGWIP
What are the 6 ways of describing cognitive learning theory (PIGWIP)
Perception, Intervening Variables, Gestalt, Whole Problem, Insight, Past Experiences.
Define Personality
The sum total of an individual’s psychological characteristics which make him or her unique
What are the three theories of personality?
Trait, Social Learning, Interactionist.
Describe trait theory of personality.
Involves characteristics that are innate, stable and enduring.
Behaviour is genetically programmed.
In sport you will display similar behaviours to other situations.
Suggests the situation does not impact upon the individual’s behaviour.
Behaviour = Function of Personality (B = F(P))
Eyesnck identified four personality traits. What were they?
Extrovert, Introvert, Stable, Unstable.
Girdano suggested there were two ways of classifying someon’s personality. What are they?
Type A & Type B.
Describe a Type A Personality.
Highly competitive Works fast Strong desire to succeed Likes control Impatient
Describe a Type B Personality.
Non-competitive Works more slowly Lack in desire to succeed Does not enjoy control Work slowly
Describe an Extrovert.
Perform better in higher arousal situations
Aroused more slowly than introverts & have low levels of internal arousal.
Low sensitivity of the reticular activating system (A network of nerves responsible for regulating consciousness/awakeness)
Prefer gross motor skills/activities
What is the reticular activating system?
A network of nerves responsible for regulating consciousness/awakeness
Describe an Introvert.
High levels of excitation (nerves).
Don’t need added stimulation & excitement.
Become aroused more quickly than extroverts
There is a high sensitivity of the reticular activating system (RAS)
Describe Social Learning theory of Personality
Social Learning is in direct contrast to trait theory and proposes all behaviour is learned.
They say behavior changes according to the environment and the situation
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF ENVIRONMENT (B = F(E))
SLT (Bandura) involves behaviour being imitated through observation & following reinforcement in a social environment.
Learning occurs through environmental experiences and is influenced by others such as friends, peers, family & role models.
Describe Interactionist theory of Personality
Personality is determined by an interaction
between traits and the situation.
(B = F (P x E))
Behaviour = Function of Personality x Environment
Behaviour changes depending on the situation/role
Define attitude.
An attitude is a predisposition for feelings or
behaviours towards something or someone.
Identify 6 ways attitudes can be formed.
Past experiences - good or bad, they shape your attitudes
Social learning - learn from role models e.g - parents
Media - shape attitudes through coverage - can reinforce stereotypes (e.g. - women’s rugby)
Education - class, course, school, teacher
Social norms - e.g. - football is big sport in the UK
Culture/ religion - e.g. - women in Muslim cultures have limited sporting opportunities
What is a prejudice?
An attitude based on pre-judgement arising from an evaluation based on unfounded beliefs or opinions.
Which three components make up the Triadic Model of attitude?
Cognitive, Affective, Behavioural.
What is dissonance within the triadic model?
Creating disagreement or differences between the components of an attitude is likely to cause emotional discomfort.
Changing one aspect of the triadic model is likely to cause such dissonance.
When their is dissonance, what do humans naturally try to do?
Create resonance/consonance (agreement).
What are the three components of persuasive communication?
The message, The persuader, The recipients.
Identify 6 ways you could change an attitude.
Reinforcement Punishment Cognitive methods – educate/ raise awareness Affective methods – help them feel the benefits Role models Raise self esteem Peer/ group pressure Goal setting Re-attribution Create cognitive dissonance
Define Motivation
The direction and intensity of one’s effort
What is intrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic Motivation is……..performing for its own sake, for personal reasons, for personal satisfaction or personal challenge.
What is extrinsic motivation?
Extrinsic Motivation is……..performing to earn a reward or when you are driven to perform for external reason
Define arousal
The intensity of emotion/motivation/behaviour. Degree of psychological readiness. The amount of drive to achieve.
What are the two types of arousal?
Cognitive & Somatic
Describe Drive Theory of arousal
There is a linear relationship arousal and performance. As arousal increases, performance increases.
Dominant response is more likely as arousal increases.
P = f (H x D)
What is a dominant response?
Dominant behaviours: EMP and learned behaviours.
What is the Inverted U Theory?
Inverted U theory states that performance increases with arousal until it reaches an optimum point at a medium level of arousal.
Any further increases to arousal will result in a decline in performance.
What does the Inverted U Theory suggest about different types of skill or different levels of learner?
It suggests complex or fine skills best with low arousal whereas simple or gross skills best with high arousal.
Extroverts cope with higher arousal or introverts cannot cope with higher arousal.
Autonomous learners = higher arousal to bring about the dominant response
Cognitive learners = lower arousal to focus on relevant cues and sub-routines
Describe the Catastrophe Theory of arousal.
As (somatic) arousal increases, performance increases up to an optimum or midway point. If arousal continues to increase or is (too) high there is a sudden or extreme decline in performance.
If high cognitive arousal/anxiety coincides with or interacts with high somatic anxiety, it causes loss of control/coordination/concentration or decision making skills
BUT if arousal/ anxiety is controlled or reduced, performance can improve again.
Define anxiety.
Negative feelings of worry and nervousness relating to activation or arousal.
What are the two types of anxiety?
Trait & State
What is the ZOF (Zone of Optimal Functioning)?
When the performer’s level of anxiety is at the optimum level they will give their best performance (This can also refer to arousal).
Every individual has a different ZOF.
What does peak flow or being in the zone look or feel like?
Relaxed:
High levels of arousal are not necessary.
Confident:
Believe in your own ability.
Focused:
Attend to the task at hand (selective attention).
Effortless:
A great deal can be completed without much effort.
Automate/ sub-conscious:
Your movements can be done automatically without much thought (grooved).
Fun/ enjoyable:
Without enjoying yourself you are unlikely to achieve peak flow.
In control:
You are in FULL control of your actions.
What is cue utilisation theory?
That every performer is able to focus on or block out relevant & irrelevant cues depending upon their attentional band.
Define aggression
Intent to harm outside of the rules of sort
What is Instinct theory of aggression?
Aggression is a ‘natural response’ or ‘trait’ (Freud).
Lorenz (1966) advocated this viewpoint who suggested humans generate aggressive energy which needs to be released.
What is social learning theory of aggression?
Bandura (1977) suggested by watching/observing others who are aggressive we learn to copy their behaviour.
More likely if aggression is shown by significant others/ role models.
What is frustration-aggression theory?
Frustrating circumstances or blocked goals causing frustration, drive and therefore aggression.
Frustration caused by poor personal performance or perceived unfairness.
Aggression helps achieve catharsis which is a release of frustration.
What is aggressive cue hypothesis?
Frustration creates a ‘readiness’ for aggression
Signals/cues/stimuli from the environment trigger aggression (e.g. - crowd)
What is social facilitation?
The positive influence of others, who may be watching or competing, on sports performance
What is social inhibition?
The negative influence of others, who may be watching or competing, which leads to decrease in sports performance
What is the impact of others on arousal?
The mere presence of others causes an increase.
What is evaluation apprehension?
Increases in arousal occur when the performer perceives the audience were assessing or judging their performance.
What determines if the presence of others results in social facilitation or inhibition?
Home/Away crowd, personality, experience levels, type of skill being performed, proximity.
Describe what is meant by the term ‘group’.
‘A collection of people (2+) who share similar goals and interact with one another’.
This will often involve:
- Collective identity
- Common goal
- Shared purpose
- Group unity
- Structured patterns of communication
What is cohesion?
Concerns the motivation which attracts individuals to the group and the resistance of those members to the group breaking up
Cohesiveness is ‘the total field of forces which act on members to remain in the group’
(Festinger, 1963)
What are the four stages in Tuckman’s model of group development?
Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing.
Describe the forming stage in Tuckman’s model.
High dependence on the leader for guidance & direction.
Group members start to get to know each other.
Little agreement on aims.
Roles are unclear and leader must give strong direction.
Describe the storming stage in Tuckman’s model.
Group decisions are difficult.
Members jostle for position and attempts to establish themselves against each other, and may potentially challenge leaders.
Clearer focus and stronger sense of purpose (some uncertainty)
Cliques and power struggles may form.
The team needs to focus on goals to avoid being drawn into power struggles.
Describe the norming stage in Tuckman’s model.
More agreement and consensus on opinion of the team.
Roles and responsibilities are clearer and generally accepted.
Decisions increasingly made through agreement.
Less important decisions are delegated.
Stronger sense of commitment, unity and group become more social.
General respect for the leader.
Describe the performing stage in Tuckman’s model.
Clear strategies, visions and aims.
No interference or direct participation from the leader (team don’t need instruction)
Focus on achieving goals and the team makes decisions.
Team members are trusted to get on with the task.
Disagreements are resolved positively.
Team members may ask for assistance from the leader on personal issues.
Identify the equation for Steiner’s Group Model.
Actual Productivity = Potential productivity
– (minus) Losses due to faulty processes
Identify faulty processes described as co-ordinational losses.
Team performance affected by inability to work together. Eg. Poor communication
Ringelmann effect: Individual performance decreases as group size increases
Inadequate leadership
Poor tactics/strategies
Identify faulty processes described as motivational losses.
Social loafing or lack of motivation
Lack of confidence or internal stable attributions for failure. Blaming themselves for failure
Lack of identifiable roles for the team
Individual efforts not recognised
Injury, illness or fatigue
Lack of incentives to work together
Too high a level of competition
Negative effects of others or criticisms from team-mates
Environmental stressors
Define social loafing.
When individuals lessen their effort as part of a group.
What is an outcome goal?
Goals focusing on end result
E.g. - winning match
What is a personal performance goal?
Focus on the individual / team performance
Less stress-inducing and put the performer in control
May make outcome/ losing bearable
E.g. - achieving a PB
What is a process goal?
Goals used to improve a skill/ technique
E.g. - improve front foot drive in cricket
What is each part of the SMART goal setting strategy?
S - specific (need to be personal/clear)
M - measurable
(need to be assessed/help monitor progress)
A - achievable
(shared, realistic goals are most powerful)
R - recorded
(recorded, measured against progress)
T - time phased
(Short/Medium/Long-term)
