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Anatomical Sciences > Skeletal System > Flashcards

Skeletal System Flashcards

1
Q

Cartilage

A

A specialized connective tissue

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2
Q

Cartilage 3 functions

A

Support & framework: embryonic skeleton (bone growth), airways

Shock absorption, resisting compression: intervertabral disks, menisci, pubic symphysis

Smooth gliding surfaces: Articular surfaces of bones within joints

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3
Q

3 cartilages of the body

A

Hyaline cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Elastic cartilage

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4
Q

Chondrocytes

A

Cells responsible for synthesis of cartilage-specific ECM components

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5
Q

Chondroblasts

A

Chondrocyte precursors capable of forming a cartilage-specific ECM, but not yet encased within the matrix

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6
Q

Ultrastructure

A

Typical of a cell actively producing proteins
Abundant RER - collagen
Prominent Golgi complexes - proteoglycans

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7
Q

Chondrocyte lineage*

A

Originate from mesenchymal stem cells, which can also give rise to osteoblasts (bone), myoblasts (muscle), and adipocytes (fat)

Transcription factor Sox9 required for expression of cartilage-specific ECM (collagen type II)

Lack of Sox9 expression prevents chondrogenic differentiate from mesenchymal progenitor cells

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8
Q

Cartilage ECM*

A

Ground substance: ECM contains large proteoglycan aggregates like aggrecan, that interact with collagen

GAGs: negatively charged chains (chondroitan sulfate and keratan sulfate) on proteoglycans that bind water

Creates a shock absorber bc of its stiffness & elasticity

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9
Q

Cartilage - special characteristics

A

Avascular

Nutrients and O2 must diffuse through ECM

Limits cartilage growth & repair

Chondrocytes have low metabolic rate & do not require high O2 conc in order to perform normal functions

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10
Q

Perichondrium*

A

Sheath of dense CT surrounding most cartilage

Contains vasculature, nerves, & lymphatic vessels

Outer layer of fibroblasts

Inner layer of chondroblast precursors (chondrogenic)

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11
Q

Cartilage growth*

A

Attributed to 2 processes:

Appositional growth: differentiation of perichondrial (chondroblast) cells. Most common way that cartilage increases girth postnatally

Interstitial growth: results from mitotic division of preexisting chondrocytes.
E.g epiphyseal (growth) plate for increasing long bone lengths, articular cartilage regeneration bc it lacks a perichondrium

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12
Q

Hyaline cartilage*

A

Most common of 3 cartilage types

Locations: articular surfaces of moveable joints, walls of larger respiratory passages (nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi), costal cartilages, & epiphyseal (growth) plates

Fibers: type II collagen

Growth: appositional & interstitial

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13
Q

Articular cartilage - a form of hyaline cartilage*

A

Covers articular surfaces of bones

Lacks a perichondrium

Diffusion of O2 & nutrients from synovial fluid

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14
Q

Elastic cartilage*

A

Very similar to hyaline cartilage except contains a large network of fine elastic fibers

Locations: auricle of ear, walls of the external auditory canals, Eustachian tubes, epiglottic

Fibers: type II collagen & elastic fibers

Growth: appositional & interstitial

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15
Q

Fibrocartilage*

A

Tissue intermediate between dense CY & hyaline cartilage
*on histological sections, border between dense CT & fibrocartilage not clear-cute

Locations: intervertebral discs, attachments of certain ligaments, pubic symphysis, menisci

Fibers; type I collagen & smaller amounts of type II collagen

Growth: interstitial

No distinct perichondrium

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16
Q

Bone

A

Comprises largest proportion of body’s CT mass

Adult human skeleton has over 200 distinct skeletal elements

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17
Q

Roles of bone

A

Framework for trunk and extremities to withstand mechanical loads
Levers for locomotor function
Protect vulnerable viscera
skull for the brain
vertebral column for the spinalcord
rib cage for the heart and lungs
Site for hematopoiesis (bone marrow)
Maintain mineral (Ca) homeostasis

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18
Q

3 parts of long bone

A

Epiphysis (ends)
Metaphysis (beneath growth plate)
Diaphysis (shaft)

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19
Q

What are all of the components of long bone*

A

3 parts (epiphysis, metaphysis, & diaphysis)
Medullary (marrow) cavity
Endosteum - contains osteoprogenitor cells
Periosteium - membrane around the bone
Fibrous layer
Osteogenic layer
Articular cartilage - hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surfaces of bone

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20
Q

A haversion system is also known as an…*

A

osteon

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21
Q

Spongy bone

A

Lamellar but usually not haversion

The cavities of the spongy bone are continuous with the bone marrow cavity of the diaphysis

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22
Q

The endosteum

A

Consists of osteoprogenitor cells & reticular fibers.

In adults, these cells can become osteoblasts during conditions requiring bone repair, such as bone fracture

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23
Q

The periosteum is formed by 2 layers

A

The outer layer contains abundant collagen fibers and blood vessels that penetrate Volkmann’s canals

The inner layer contains osteoprogenitor cells

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24
Q

Sharpey’s fibers

A

Collagen fibers derived from outer layer of periosteum, projecting into the outer circumferential lamellar system

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25
Q

Osteoblasts*

A

Responsible for synthesis and mineralization of bone ECM

Protein producing cells are cuboidal or columnar and lining active bone-forming surfaces

Osteoid vs mineralized matrix

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26
Q

Osteoblast lineage*

A

Originate from mesenchymal stem cells (progenitors) which can also give rise to chondrocytes (cartilage), myoblasts (muscle), & adipocyte (fat)

The transcription factor Runx2 (Runt-related transcription factor-2), is required for the expression of bone-specific ECM (collagen type I, osteocalcin and other non-collagenous proteins)

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27
Q

Bone cells: osteocytes*

A

Terminally differentiated osteobalsts that become encased in the ECM

Make up over 90% of all bone cells

Dendritic processes maintain contact with other osteocytes, Haversian canals, the bone surface (periosteum), & the bone marrow (endosteum) - sites of vasculature

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28
Q

Bone cells: osteoclasts*

A

Large, multinucleated cells that are responsible for bone resorption/degradation of mineralized bone

Actively resorbing cells sit with Howship’s lacunae

Osteoclasts are derived from hematopoietic stem cells and share a common progenitor with the monocyte/macrophage lineage

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29
Q

Bone cells: osteoclasts*

A

Large size & multinucleated (polykaryon)
Clear zone (sealing zone)
Ruffled border

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30
Q

Around the circumference of the ruffled border, where the plasma membrane is closely applied to the bone, ______ ______ accumulate to form a _______ _______, together with alphavbeta3 integrin & osteopontin

A

Around the circumference of the ruffled border, where the plasma membrane is closely applied to the bone, actin filaments accumulate to form a sealing zone together with alphavbeta3 integrin & osteopontin

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31
Q

A chloride channel prevents…

A

An excessive rise of intracellular pH

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32
Q

______ is exchanged for ______, which is then transported by the chloride channel in the ruffled border to Howship’s lacunae. ____ -_______ exchanger ensures the maintenance of cytoplasmic electroneutrality.

A

Bicarbone;chloride;bicarbonate-chloride

33
Q

________ _______ __ generates protons from CO2 & H2O. H+ is released into Howship’s lacuna by an H+-ATPase pump to create an acidic environment (pH -4.5) for solubulizing mineralized bone

A

Carbonic anhydrate II generates protons from CO2 & H2O. H+ is released into Howship’s lacuna by an H+-ATPase pump to create an acidic environment (pH -4.5) for solubulizing mineralized bone

34
Q

________ ___ & ______ ________ sre released into Howships’s lacuna to degrade the organic matrix (type I collagen & noncollagenous proteins) following sokubulization of minerals by acidification

A

Cathepain K & matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) are released into Howships’s lacuna to degrade the organic matrix (type I collagen & noncollagenous proteins) following sokubulization of minerals by acidification

35
Q

Components of osteoclasts

A

Mitochondria
Coated vesicles
Acidified vesicles
Nucleus
Ruffled border

36
Q

The osteoclast is a highly polarized cell associated with a…

A

The osteoclast is a highly polarized cell associated with a shallow concavity, Howship’s lacuna or the subosteoclastic compartment. The surface facing the lacuna displays a ruffled border

37
Q

Osteoclasts are….

A

multinucleated cells & contain abundant mitochondria, coated vesicles (with degraded organic bone matrix material) & acidified vesicles (with electrogenic H+-ATPase)

38
Q

Bone cells - regulatory interactions

A

A balance of bone formation and resorption is necessary to maintain the structural integrity of the adult skeleton

39
Q

RANK-L*

A

Receptor activator of NF-kB (RANK) & its ligand (RANK-L): induces osteoclast formation & activation

Macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF): stimulates early commitment to osteoclast lineage

Osteoprotegerin (OPG): produced by osteoblasts it acts as a RANK-L decoy receptor

40
Q

Bone has how much of body’s Ca?

A

99%

41
Q

Bone has how much of body’s potassium?

A

4%

42
Q

Bone has how much of body’s sodium?

A

35%

43
Q

Bone has how much of body’s magnesium?

A

50%

44
Q

Bone has how much of body’s carbonate?

A

80%

45
Q

Bone has how much of body’s phosphate?

A

99%

46
Q

At intestine, ______ & ______ ions are absorbed from the diet. The rate of absorption is ______ regulated

A

At intestine, Ca & phosphate ions are absorbed from the diet. The rate of absorption is hormonally regulated

47
Q

Within the skeleton, ______ are continuously depositing new bone matrix. At the same time, _____ are eroding existing matrix and releasing ___ & ___ ions that enter circulation

A

Within the skeleton, osteoblasts are continuously depositing new bone matrix. At the same time, osteoclasts are eroding existing matrix and releasing Ca & phosphate ions that enter circulation

48
Q

The balance between osteoblast & osteoclast activity is ______ ____

A

hormonally regulated

49
Q

At the kidneys…

A

The levels of Ca and phosphate ions lost in the urine is hormonally regulated

50
Q

Osteogenesis 2 processes

A

Intramembranous - bone tissue formed directly in primitive CT (mesenchyme)

Endochondral - Bone tissue replaces a hyaline cartilage template

51
Q

Intramembranous bone formation

A

Mesencyme
Bone blastema
Primary bone tissue

52
Q

Endochondral ossification

A

Development of the primary ossification center:

Hyaline cartilage is the template of a long bone

Osteoprogenitor cells of perichondrium form periosteal collar

Blood vessels, forming the periosteal bud, branch in opposite directions

53
Q

Endochondral ossification (talk about the chondrocytes…) - formation center of ossification

A

Proliferation of chondrocytes followed by their hypertrophy at midpoint of the shaft initiates formation of the primary ossification center

Hypertrophic chondrocytes secrete vascular endothelial cell growth factor to induce sprouting of blood vessels from perichondrium

Then, calcification of the matrix & apoptosis of hypertrophic chondrocytes occur

54
Q

The epiphyseal cartilaginous growth plate between the metaphysis & epiphysis will eventually…

A

be replaced by bone. The bone at this site is particularly dense & recognized as an epiphyseal line

55
Q

The thin cap of cartilage from the original hyaline model remains as…

A

articular cartilage and prevents bone to bone contact within the joint

56
Q

Development of secondary ossification center

A

Blood vessels and osteoprogenitor cells infiltrate epiphysis & secondary ossification is established

A similar secondary ossification center appears in the opposite epiphysis

Epiphyseal plate becomes replaced by an epiphyseal line. This process occurs gradually from puberty to maturity, and the long bone can no longer grow in length

Blood vessels from the diaphysis & epiphysis intercommunicate

All the epiphyseal cartilage is replaced by bone, except for the articular surface

57
Q

Zones of endochondral ossification

A

Reserve zone
Proliferative zone
Hypertrophic zone
Vascular invasion zone

58
Q

Reserve zone

A

Primitive hyaline cartilage responsible for the growth in length of the bone as erosion and bone deposition advance into this zone

59
Q

Proliferative zone

A

Proliferating chondrocytes align as vertical & parallel columns

Contains flattened chondrocytes in columns or clusters parallel to the growth axis

Chondrocytes are separated by the territorial matrix

ALl chondrocytes within a cluster share common territorial matrix

60
Q

Hypertrophic zone

A

Apoptosis of chondrocytes and calcification of the territorial matrix

Hypertrophic chondrocytes calcify the matrix, make type X collagen, attract blood vessels by secreting vascular endothelial growth factor, instruct perichondrial cells to become osteoblasts to form bone collar and undergo apoptosis

61
Q

Vascular invasion zone

A

Blood vessels penetrate the transverse calcified septa, and carry osteoprogenitor cells with them

Blood vessels penetrate the transverse septa of the last hypertrophic chondrocyte layer & form vascular spaces with blood (lacunae)

Longitudinal septa, corresponding to the interterritorial matrix, are not degraded by the vascular invasion

Osteoblasts beneath the sites of vascular invasion begin to deposit osteoid along longitudinal septa forming trabecular bone

62
Q

Longitudinal septa at the vascular invasion zones are the…

A

first sites where osteoblasts begin to deposit bone matrix (osteoid)

63
Q

Increases in bone diameter result from…

A

appositional growth

64
Q

Name all fracture stages

A

Hematoma formation
Callus formation
Bone remodeling

65
Q

Hematoma formation & inflammation (within hours)

A

Pain, warmth, tenderness, & instability
Recruitment & prolif of MSC progenitor populations (periosteum)
Children have thicker + better vascularized periosteum facilitating faster healing

66
Q

Hematoma formation (low pO2 @ fracture site promotes)

A

MSC differentiation into chondrocytes, which will produce cartilage
Angiogenesis

67
Q

Callus formation (soft callus formation)

A

Development of a fibrous & cartilaginous callus (collar) that surrounds the fracture

Callus progressively widens & stiffens to ultimately immobilize fractured ends of bone

68
Q

Callus formation (hard callus formation)

A

Initial bone formation in the callus

Endochondral ossification of cartilage

Intramembranous ossification directly on bone surface

Proportions of ossification processes

69
Q

Bone remodeling (months to years)

A

Conversion of immature (woven bone) into mature (lamellar) bone
Haversion systems
reconstituted

Biomechanical forces direct relative amounts of bone deposition
More bone is deposited
in areas of greater
mechanical stress

70
Q

Osteoporosis (bone loss)

A

Uncoupling of bone formation & resorption in favor of resorption

Factors include aging, post-menopausal (estrogen-deficiency), disuse inflammation, diabetes, and others

71
Q

Rickets/osteomalacia

A

Inadequate mineralization:

Defective vit D intake/metabolism

Defective mineralization of osteoid

Increased osteoid thickness

Increased fracture risk

Treatment by vit D supplementation

72
Q

Classification of joints by tissue type

A

Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial

73
Q

Classification of joints by degree of movement

A

Synarthrosis - immovable
Cartilaginous - slightly moveable
Synovial - freely moveable

74
Q

Fibrous joints

A

Sutures - immoveable; e.g. flat bones of the skull

Gomphoses - immoveable; e.g. teeth articulating with their sockets in maxilla/mandible (periodontal ligament)

Syndesmoses - slightly moveable; e.g. interosseous membrane between radius & ulna

75
Q

Cartilaginous joints

A

Synchondroses - bones connected by hyaline cartilage - immoveable; e.g. ribs to sternum & epiphyseal plates

Symphyses - bones united by fibrocartilage - slightly moveable; e.g. pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs

76
Q

Synovial joints

A

Defined by the presence of a fluid-filled cavity contained within a fibrous capsule. They are freely moveable & commonly found throughout the body

77
Q

Structure of synovial joints (components)

A

Articular cartilage
Joint capsule
Synovial fluid

78
Q

Functions of synovial fluid

A

Lubrication

Nutrient distribution

Shock absorption

Anatomical Sciences (4 decks)

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