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Katie Cytology, Basic Genetics and Histology > Skeletal System > Flashcards

Skeletal System Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the Anatomical position

A

Person stands erect with feet parallel flat on the floor, palms facing forward and arms at the sides of the body

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2
Q

What does supine describe

A

the body laying down face up

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3
Q

What does prone describe

A

body laying down face down

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4
Q

What is the definition of the following:

Medial
Lateral
Bilateral
Unilateral
Ipsilateral
Contralateral
Proximal
Distal
Anterior
Posterior
Superior
Inferior

A

Nearer the midline
Away from the midline
Both sides
One side
Same side
Opposite side
Nearer the trunk
Further from the trunk
Nearer the front
Nearer the back
Towards the top
Towards the bottom

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5
Q

What plane separates the body from front to back

A

Coronal/Front plane

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6
Q

What plane separates body from left and right

A

Sagittal plane

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7
Q

What plane separates the body from bottom to top

A

Horizontal/Transverse plane

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8
Q

How many bones are there in the human skeletal system

A

206

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9
Q

What percentage of the body weight is the skeletal system

A

18%

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10
Q

List 8 functions of the skeletal system.

A

Provides protection for internal organs.
Supports framework for the body.
Forms boundaries e.g skull
Attachment for tendons and ligaments
Permits movement of joints
Haematopoiesis - formation and development of blood cells from the red bone marrow.
Mineral homeostasis - calcium and phosphate
Tryglycedride storage - (yellow bone marrow

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11
Q

What are Osteogenic cells and what ais their function

A

Osteogenic cells are bone stem cells that are unspecialised, their function is to go on and become Osteoblasts

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12
Q

What are Osteoblasts and what is their function

A

Osteoblasts are immature cells that are bone building cells.
They synthesis and secrete collagen and other components of bony matrix such as Chondroitin.
They get trapped in their own matrix and then go on to become Osteocytes

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13
Q

What are Osteocytes and what is their function

A

Osteocytes are fully matured cells
They maintain daily metabolism in bone and the exchange of nutrients.

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14
Q

What are Osteoclasts and what is their function

A

Osteoclasts are huge cells made up of over 50 monocytes (white blood cells)

On the side facing the bone they have a ruffled board that secretes powerful lysosomal enzymes and acids, which digest bone matrix

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15
Q

What does resorption refer to in bone cells

A

The breakdown of bone matrix

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16
Q

What does resorption refer to in bone cells

A

The breakdown of bone matrix

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17
Q

Fill in the xxxx

xxxxxx and xxxxxx work together to xxxxx bone throughout life. Excess xxxxx activity leads to a loss of xxxx xxxx and can lead to xxxxxxx

A

Osteoblasts
Osteoclasts
Remodel
Osteoclast
bone density
Osteoporosis

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18
Q

What are the 2 types of bone called

A

Compact and Spongy bone

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19
Q

How much of the skeleton is made up of compact bone

A

80%

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20
Q

Where is compact bone found

A

Beneath the Periosteum of all bones

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21
Q

What cells does bone contain

A

Osteogenic, Osteoblasts Osteocytes and Osteoclasts

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22
Q

Which bone contains few spaces and is strong? What kind of tissue is bone made up of?

A

Compact Bone and Connective tissue

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23
Q

Where do we mainly find compact bone

A

Found beneath the Periosteum of all bones and makes up the bulk of the diaphysis in long bone

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24
Q

What is and Osteon and how is it aligned

A

Structural Unit of Compact bone and it is aligned in the same lines as stress

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25
Q

What are the 4 parts that Osteons are made up of and describe each.

A

Haversian Canal - contains the blood vessels and the nerves

Lamellae - Concentric rings of calcified extracellular matrix containing minerals and collagen

Canaliculi - a mini system of interconnected canals that provide a route for minerals and waste

Lacunae - small spaces filled with Osteocytes

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26
Q

Describe Spongy Bone

A

Spongy bone does not contain Osteons. It is an irregular lattice of thin columns called Trabeculae arranged along the lines of stress.

Macroscopic spaces between Trabeculae helps to keep bone lighter and can be filled with bone marrow. They contain blood vessels that nourish the bone.

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27
Q

Define a long bone

A

Bones that have a greater length than width

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28
Q

Describe a long bone

A

Long bones contain a Diaphysis and 2 heads Epiphyses.

They are slightly curve for strength which allows for better force distribution.

They contain mainly compact bone in the diaphysis and spongy bone in the Epiphyses.

Examples include the femur, tibia and humerus

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29
Q

Where do we find the Epipysises

A

forms the proximal and distal ends of long bones

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30
Q

What separates the Epiphysis and Diaphysis what is made up of. What does is do?

A

The Epiphyses and Diaphysis are separated by the epiphyseal plate which is a layer of hyaline cartilage that allow the diaphysis to grow in length.

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31
Q

What is the structure of epiphysis

A

Epiphysis contains a thin outer region of compact bone covered by articular/Hyaline cartilage and inner bone with red bone marrow

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32
Q

What does Diaphysis describe

A

Tubular shaft of long bones

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33
Q

What is the outside of compact bone covered by

A

Periosteum

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34
Q

Where do we find the central medullary cavity and what does it contain?

A

It is found in the Periosteum and contains red/yellow bone marrow

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35
Q

Does all bone marrow start of as Red or Yellow

A

All bone marrow starts at birth as red and gradually some of the red bone marrow is replaced with yellow bone marrow (fat) which

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36
Q

Why would the body need to convert yellow bone marrow.

A

The body can covert yellow bone marrow very quickly to red bone marrow if needed. For example if some one has had an accident or Hemorrhaging and will provide more blood cells.

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37
Q

What does peri mean?

A

Surrounding e.g periosteum surrounding bone

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38
Q

Where do we find the Periosteum?

A

Surrounding the external surface of the bone that is not covered in cartilage.

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39
Q

What replaces the Periosteum on joint surfaces

A

Hyaline cartilage

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40
Q

Fill in the gaps
The Periosteum is a xxxx-xxxxx, highly-xxxxx xxxxx that xxxxx bone and serves as an xxxxxx for xxxxx and xxxxx

A

pain-sensitive
vascular membrane
protects
attachment for ligaments and tendons

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41
Q

How do bones receive oxygenated blood?

A

Periosteal arteries enter the diaphysis through many perforating canals

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42
Q

Describe the structure of the Periosteum

A

It is double layered membrane containing a tough fibrous outer layer that protects bone.

Inner ‘Osteogenic layer’ that contains Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts, assisting in bone growth and repair.

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43
Q

What type of bone is the Patella

A

Sesamoid bone

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44
Q

Where do we find irregular shaped bones

A

Vertebrae

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45
Q

Give examples of 2 flat bones

A

Scapular and skull or pelvis

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46
Q

What is the Diaphysis

A

The central shaft between proximal and distal Epiphyses

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47
Q

Define what is means to ossify something

A

To harden something

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48
Q

What does Ossification mean?

A

To produce a bone

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49
Q

When do our bones stop remodeling

A

They don’t we continue to remodel our bones throughout life.

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50
Q

What are the 2 Ossification pathways used to produce bone and what do they do? Give 2 examples of each?

A
  1. Intramembranous ossification -
    Bone develops from connective tissue sheets
    Flat bones (i.e the skull) and the clavicles develop this way.
  2. Endrochondral ossification - Bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage i.e ribs, arms and leg bones
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51
Q

What does endo stand for

A

Within

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52
Q

What does chondral stand for

A

Cartilage

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53
Q

What is the name of the plate needed for bones to grow

A

Epiphyseal Growth plate

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54
Q

What are the 2 ends of the Epiphyseal plate called and define

A

Proximal Epiphyseal Growth Plate - Growth plate nearer the trunk
Distal Epiphyseal Growth Plate - Growth plate further from the trunk

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55
Q

Where do we find the Epiphyseal Growth plate

A

Found in long bones between the Epiphysis and the Diaphysis

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56
Q

Where do we find Hyaline Cartilage

A

In the Epiphyses top and bottom of bones

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57
Q

What is produced in the epiphyses and what does it do

A

Osteoblasts are produced, ossifying the bone matrix

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58
Q

At what age does the Epiphyseal Growth Plate ossify?

A

Between 18 - 21 years of age

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59
Q

What remains after the Epiphyseal Growth plate has ossified

A

Epiphyseal line remains

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60
Q

What might we see if a bone fracture damages the epiphyseal plate during childhood?

A

The bone may grow shorter - seeing a discrepancy in leg length

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61
Q

How can bones grow in thickness

A

Using Osteoblasts in the Periosteum

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62
Q

Describe the activity within the growth plate

A

Cartilage cells (Chondrocytes) undergo mitosis
Then chondrocytes stop dividing
Then minerals start to deposit, capillaries invade and deliver Osteoblasts/Osteoclasts and new bone is formed.

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63
Q

What are Chondrocytes

A

Cartilage cells

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64
Q

What happens to bone in Menopause

A

We lose the balance of osteoblasts/osteoclasts. Osteoblasts drive goes down and Osteoclasts keep going as normal causing the loss of bone density.

65
Q

What 3 hormones promote Osteoblast activity

A

Growth hormone and Thyroid hormone - stimulate the growth of bone
Testosterone and Oestrogen - promotes the laying down of boney matrix
Calcitonin

66
Q

Where do we find the Parathyroid Gland

A

they are 4 small glands that sit on top of the thyroid gland and are located anterior

67
Q

What hormones promote Osteoclast activity

A

Parathyroid hormone
Cortisol

68
Q

What hormones breakdown calcium for you

A

Cortisol and Steroid medication

69
Q

What does long term use of steroid medication do to bone

A

It breaks down bone density

70
Q

What mineral is highest in bones

A

Calcium

71
Q

Why do blood calcium levels have to be tightly controlled

A

To ensure proper blood clotting
Without Calcium present it would be impossible to contract muscle
Calcium is also needed to relay messages to different nerve cells.

72
Q

What is the name given when calcium levels are low and what happens.

A

Hypocalcaemia - Osteoclasts breakdown bone and release calcium into the blood to bring back homeostasis.

73
Q

What happens if calcium levels are too high

A

Hypercalcaemia - Osteoblast activity is increased (takes calcium back into the bone)
Calcium exchange is regulated by the Parathyroid glands and thyroid gland.

74
Q

What hormone do we use to take blood to the bones

A

Calcitonin

75
Q

What hormone do we use to take bone to the blood

A

Parathyroid hormone

76
Q

Where is yellow bone marrow found on the bones

A

is stored in the distal part of the bone

77
Q

What does vitamin D do

A

Facilitates calcium absorption in the intestines and is directly involved in bone turnover.

78
Q

Why do we need vitamin K2 when we take vitamin D

A

Vit D3 and K2 work closely together. D3 assists in the absorption of Calcium into the blood and K2 activates a protein called ‘osteocalcin’ which controls utilisation of calcium in the body (depositing it in bones).

79
Q

What food is the best source of vitamin D3

A

Oily fish is the best source such as Salmon. Has to be wild Salmon though as farmed Salmon contains only 10% of the D3 that wild contains.

Also found in Eggs

80
Q

Explain why a patient might be deficient in Vitamin D

A

lack of sunlight, reduced dietary absorption, or reduced ability to produce an active form of Vitamin D. Excessive use of sunscreens, Magnesium deficiency and high alcohol intake reduces vitamin D conversion into it’s active form

81
Q

Does Calcitonin reduce calcium blood levels or increase

A

Lowers blood calcium levels

82
Q

Where is Calcitonin secreted from

A

para-follicular cells of the thyroid gland

83
Q

Describe the process of how Calcitonin works and what the outcome is?

A

Para-follicular cells of the thyroid gland secretes Calcitonin

It inhibits osteoclast and promotes osteoblast deposition of calcium in the bones
The result is increased bone formation and decreased blood calcium

84
Q

What 2 substances does the Thyroid gland excrete

A

Thyroid hormone and Calcitonin

85
Q

What is parathyroid hormone and what does it do?

A

Increases the activity of Osteoclasts
Stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb and retain calcium in the blood
Increases the formation of calcitriol which promotes calcium update form food in the intestines.

86
Q

What is the active form of vitamin D

A

Calcitriol active form of vitamin D it promotes calcium uptake from food in the intestines

87
Q

Why is weight baring exersize so important

A

It stimulates the activity of Osteoblasts which lay down the collagen and minerals to help form hard tough bone.

88
Q

What are the names of the 2 sections that the Skeleton is divided into?

A

Appendicular and Axial sections

89
Q

What is the Axial skeleton and how many bones does it contain.

A

Axial Skeleton is the Central Skeleton and has 80 bones

90
Q

What part of the skeleton protects our most vital organs.

A

Axial skeleton

91
Q

The axial skeleton contains - give 5 examples

A

Skull, inner ear, thoracic cage, vertebrae, hyoid bone

92
Q

What are the skull bones joined with

A

Fibrous joints called ‘sutures’

93
Q

What are sinuses and what is their function

A

Sinuses are air filled cavities in the skull that
Give resonance to the voice
Lighten bones of the face and cranium

94
Q

What are fontanelles and why are they present.

A

Fibrous sutures (soft spots) on a baby’s head joining the skull bones together. They ossify at 12-18 months

They are present to allow the baby’s head through the birth canal.

95
Q

What does a sunken fontanelle indicate

A

Indication the baby is very dehydrated

96
Q

What is a bulging fontanelle a sign of

A

Indication of Hdyrocephalus - water on the brain

97
Q

How many vertebrae does the vertebrae column consist of

A

24

98
Q

What are the 4 regions of the vertebrae? What are their numbers

A

Cervical - C1 - C7
Thoracic - T1 - T12
Lumbar - L1-L5
Sacrum and coccyx - fused bones

99
Q

How do vertebrae connect

A

Via intervertebral discs

100
Q

What are the functions of the vertebral column

A

Protection for the spinal cord
movement e.g side bending
support of the skull
forms axis of the trunk

101
Q

What does the thoracic cage consist of

A

Sternum and 12 ribs

102
Q

Where does the first rib sit.

A

Behind the clavical in the anterior chest

103
Q

Where is the apex of the lung

A

Superior to the clavicle

104
Q

How do ribs attach to the sternum

A

Via costal cartilage

105
Q

Which ribs are floating ribs and how do they attach.

A

Ribs T11 - T12 are floating ribs they have no anterior bony attachment and attach posteriorly to vertebrae T11 - T12

106
Q

How many discs are present in the spine

A

23 Discs

107
Q

What structures are discs and what do they do?

A

Shock absorbing structures. They bind vertebral bodies and separate individual vertebrae.

108
Q

Do we have discs in the Sacrum

A

No

109
Q

When are discs most hydrated

A

In the morning and between the ages of 30-40 years

110
Q

How much of the spinal column do discs make up.

A

One third

111
Q

What are the 2 parts of the vertebral discs called

A

Annulus fibrosus and Nucleus pulposus
The nucleus pulposus is a gel like pad.

112
Q

What is the appendicular skeleton

A

It is the distal skeleton consisting of the limbs

113
Q

How many bones does the appendicular skeleton have

A

126

114
Q

What are the functions of the appendicular skeleton

A

Movement and organ protection

115
Q

What does the appendicular skeleton consist of

A

Shoulder girdle, arm, hand pelvic girdle, leg and foot

116
Q

What bone is the Ulna

A

Medial forearm bone

117
Q

What are the phalanges and how are they divided up

A

They are the fingers and divided into proximal, intermediate and distal phalanges

118
Q

Where do we find the metacarpals

A

between the wrist and fingers

119
Q

What bone is the radius

A

lateral elbow bone

120
Q

Where do we find the humerus

A

Upper arm

121
Q

What is the pelvic girdle made up of

A

Hip bones
Sacrum
Coccyx
Sacro-iliac joint

122
Q

Where do we find the sacro-iliact joint

A

We have dimples in our lower back the sacro-iliac joint is found inside there.

123
Q

Which bone in the body is the longest and strongest

A

Femur

124
Q

What bone is the Tibia

A

Shin bone

125
Q

Where is the fibula

A

Bone in the lateral lower leg

126
Q

Where are tarsals found

A

Ankle

127
Q

Metatarsals

A

Bones connecting middle section of the foot

128
Q

Where do we find the Phalanges in the foot

A

Toes

129
Q

What are the 8 bones of the arms and shoulder and where are they found

A

Clavicle - Anteriorly
Scapular - Posteriorly
Humerus - Upper Arm
Ulna - Medial forearm
Radius - lateral elbow bone
Carpals - wrist bones
Metacarpals - bones between carpals and digits
Phalanges - which are divided into proximal intermediate and distal

130
Q

What are muscles that are attached to bone and move joints called?

A

Skeletal Muscle

131
Q

How are skeletal muscles attached to bone

A

via tough fibrous structures called tendons

132
Q

How many joints are there in the human body

A

187

133
Q

t What are the 3 types of joint and give an example of each.

A

Fibrous joints - bones are held tightly together permitting very limited movement. E.g Sutures in the skull

Cartilaginous joints - Articulating bones tightly connected by cartilage permit little or no movement. E.g Epiphyseal growth plate and intervertebral discs

Synovial joints - permit the most movement and act as a shock absorber E.G ball and socket joints such as hip and shoulder and hinge joints such as elbow and knee

134
Q

What does Synovial mean

A

Moveable/joint containing fluid

135
Q

What is the fluid that Synovial joints contain and what does it consist of?

A

Synovial fluid consists of Hyaluronic acid and interstitial fluid filtered from the blood.

136
Q

How do Synovial joints obtain nutrients.

A

As they have no direct blood supply they obtain nutrients by diffusion. This is essential for joint movement to happen

137
Q

What are Bursae

A

Small fluid filled sac-like structures that reduce friction

138
Q

Where are Bursae located and what is their function.

A

between skin and bone, tendon and bone, muscle and bone or ligament and bone. They allow for frictionless movement.

139
Q

Describe the structure of a synovial joint

A

A joint that has a Synovial membrane and synovial fluid, and a small bit of hyaline cartilage lining the joints.

140
Q

Define what is meant by the movement flexion

A

decrease in joint angle

141
Q

Define what is meant by Extension

A

Increase in joint angle

142
Q

What is meant my rotation

A

movement around longitudinal axis. In the limbs it can be medial or lateral (away from the midline)

143
Q

Define Lateral Flexion

A

movement of trunk away from the midline

144
Q

What is Abduction

A

movement away from the midline

145
Q

Adduction

A

movement towards the midline

146
Q

Circumduction

A

Circluar (flexion, abduction, extension, hyperextension, adduction in succession.)

147
Q

What is a pathological fracture

A

A fracture that wouldn’t have happened if the patient didn’t have an underlying disease.

148
Q

Why is it important to have a dislocation in the shoulder fixed as soon as possible after the event

A

Because we have lots of blood vessels running down our arm supplying one and surrounding nerves. if this is cut off it can damage the blood vessels

149
Q

What are common causes of fractures?

A

Trauma, low bone density (associated with Osteoporosis) Vitamin D deficiency.

150
Q

What are the 5 types of Fracture classification and explain each.

A

Complete - Bone broken into 2 or more fragments can either be open (perforated skin) or closed (soft tissues not comprised .

Incomplete - bone is fractured but not into fragments

Linear fractures along bone length
Transverse fractures - across the bone

Avulsion fracture - when a tendon or ligament pulls off a piece of bone.

151
Q

What does Callus mean

A

Mass of tissue

152
Q

What are the 4 stages of Fracture repair. Explain each stage

A
  1. Haematoma (and inflammation)
    Blood vessels at the fracture site are broken and blood leaks into the site. Causes death of local cells and swelling

Fibrocartilaginous callus formation. Phagocytes clean up the debris. Fibroblasts invade and lay down collagen forming a soft callus which takes 2-3 weeks.

Bony Callus formation
Osteoblasts replace soft callus with new bone which takes less than 3 months.

Bone remodelling
The callus is mineralised and compact bone laid down. Then Osteoclasts reshape the new bone. Remodelling occurs over months to years.

153
Q

What herbs can we use for treatment of fractures

A

Comfrey, gotu kola

154
Q

What nutrients are important for treatment of fractures.

A

Vitamin D, C and calcium

155
Q

What are the Homeopathic remedies used for:
Bruising
Injured nerves
Fusing bones together (and when should it be given)

A

Arnica
Ruta
Calc Phos 4c given for the first 2 weeks to help fuse bones together.

156
Q

What is the treatment for a sprain

A

RICE -
Rest
Ice
Compression
Elevation

Herbs locally and internally - to assist with tissue repair. e.g comfrey manual therapy and rehab

157
Q

What nutrients do we need more of to support recovery of a sprain

A

Glucosamine, vitamin C, Zinc, and Vit E

158
Q

What are ligaments

A

Tough bands of connective tissue that attach bone to bone

159
Q

What Homeopathic remedies could we use for sprains

A

Arnica ruta and acupuncture

Katie Cytology, Basic Genetics and Histology (5 decks)

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