Cardiovascular System 1 Flashcards
What are the 3 parts of the Cardiovascular System
Heart , Blood vessels and blood
What should blood PH Levels be? Is this more alkaline or Acidic
7.35 - 7.45 more alkaline
Is below 7 more alkaline or acidic
Acidic
What is blood made up of
It is a fluid type of connective tissue, composed of 55% plasma (water nutrients, gases, proteins etc) and cells
How much of the body weight does blood account for
7%
On average how many litres of blood does a male and female have.
Men 5.6L and women 4.5l
What are the functions of the blood
The blood contributes to homeostasis by transporting Oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones nutrients and waste products.
Helps regulate PH and temperature
Immune function with antibodies, phagocytes clotting factors etc.
How is Oxygen transported
Through Haemoglobin
Where do we find Haemoglobin
We find it within red blood cells there are millions of Haemoglobin in each red blood cell.
What does plasma mean
Fluid portion of the blood
What is the plasma known as in bones
Extracellular matrix
Define Blood Plasma
is the yellow coloured liquid that remains when cells are removed from the blood
What does Blood plasma consist of (8)
91% Water
7% proteins
0.9% mineral salts
Nutrients
Waste materials
Enzymes
Gases
Hormones
What are Enzymes
Proteins that are catalysts for reactions in the body
What is serum in the blood
plasma with clotting factors removed
How do we separate blood plasma from blood cells
Using a centrifuge where blood is spun and contents separated based on the density
What is the purpose of centrifuging blood
When you separated the cells and plasma biomarkers are kept intact and are more stable by the time they arrive at the lab - giving more accurate results.
What organ are a majority of plasma proteins synthesised
Liver
What are Liver cells called
Hepatocytes
What is the plasma protein that we have the most of
Albumin makes up 55% and is the smallest and most numerous plasma protein
What are the functions of Albumin
Carrier of substances (lipids steroid hormones)
Maintains Osmotic pressure
What is Osmotic Pressure
Albumin is a magnet for water. Osmotic pressure helps to provide a chemical reaction to keep blood pumped with water.
What diseases are attributed to low albumin levels
Liver or Kidney disease
What happens if someone has low albumin levels
Less albumin in the blood means water won’t stay in the blood and will leak out and go into other tissues. This is called Odema
What happens in Odema
Fluid accumulates around the tissues
How much Albumin do we release per day
Between 10-15g
What are the 3 main Blood plasma protein
Albumin, Globulins and Fibrinogen
What are the functions of Globulins and what percentage of them do we have.
Immunity - Immunoglobulins (antibodies) that are secreted by B Cells
Transport Iron - lipids and vitamins 38%
What are the functions of Fibrinogen blood plasma proteins and what percentage is in the blood
Fibriongens are the clotting factor no 1 out of 13
Essential for blood clotting and account for 7% of blood plasma proteins.
How do nutrients pass into the blood
Products of digestion pass into the blood for distribution to all body cells.
Name 4 blood plasma nutrients needed
Simple sugars (carbohydrates mainly glucose)
Vitamins
Amino Acids
Fats/Oils
What are Amino Acids
Building blocks for proteins
How are fats and lipids carried
carried by proteins i.e HDL, LDL
What are the main positively charged mineral components called, give 4 examples
Cations - magnesium potassium, calcium and sodium
What is the name given to mineral components that are negatively charged
Anions - Chlorides, Bicarbonates phosphates
What is the equation for
Sodium
Calcium
Potassium
magnesium
Chlorine
Bicarbonate
Phosphate
NA+
CA+2
K+
Mg+2
CL-
HCO3-
PO4-2
What do we find in blood plasma
Waste products
Urea - from breakdown of proteins
Creatinine - waste product of muscle cells
Uric Acid - Breakdown of Purines
Carbon Dioxide - from cell metabolism
Hormones - Chemical messengers that travel in the blood
Enzymes - Catalysts (increases the rate) for biochemical reactions in the body
Gases - Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Describe what the Urea Cycle is
When a cell has used some protein up for energy we get some ammonia. Our liver takes the ammonia and puts it through a series of reactions that then convert to Urea which is less harmful to our bodies
What is Erythro
Greek for Red
What is Leuko
Greek for White
Thrombo
Greek for clot
Describe Haematopoiesis in detail
Haematopoiesis describes the formation of Red Blood Cells
All blood cells originate from pluripotent stem cells in the red bone marrow.
During the first 2 months of gestation the embryonic yolk sac preforms Haematopoiesis. Then in months 2-9 of foetal life the liver and spleen take over.
In the first few years of life all bone marrow is red and produces red blood cells
In adults haematopoiesis occurs in the axial skeleton, skull, ribs, sternham, sacrum, pelvis and proximal long bones (mainly the femur)
Define and Describe Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes are bi-concave and non-nucleated allowing a larger surface area for transportation of Oxygen.
They have a life span of 90-120 days
They also have strong flexible membrane
They are around 6-8 um micrometres in diameter
The percentage blood volume of eurythrocytes is called Haematocrit
What percentage is a male and female Haematocrit
Female 42%
Male 47%
Why is the Haematocrit percentage lower in women
The red blood cells in women are more efficient
What organ is known as the graveyard for red blood cells
The Spleen
What is the abbreviation for Haemoglobin
Hb
Define and describe the structure of an Erythrocyte
Erythrocytes are made up of Haemoglobin molecules that transport mainly oxygen and a small amount of carbon dioxide.
Each erythrocyte has 280 million Hb molecules
One Hb molecule has 4 polypeptide chains. Each chain binds to a pigment called Haem which contains Iron.
We can carry 4 Oxygen Atoms per Hb molecule
What is good about the structure of an Erythrocyte
The structure optimises the function in transporting oxygen around the body
What does poly peptide mean
Poly - Many
peptide - protein
= Large protein
Define the structure of Haemoglobin
A Hb molecule is made up of 4 polypeptide chains. The structure of the chains is different in Foetal and Adult Hb
What is Foetal hb composed of and why?
Foetal Hb (HbF) is composed of 4 polypeptide chains. 2 Alpha and 2 Gamma they are good at holding on to Oxygen
What is Adult Hb composed of
Adult Hb (HbA) is composed of 2 Alpha chains and 2 Beta chains
What is the appearance in Haemoglobin of 1. Alpha chains and 2. Beta Chains
Alpha chains create a Helix and Beta chains look like pleated sheets
Why is blood red
Because of the interaction of Oxygen and Iron. Chemical reactions between the Oxygen and Iron reflect the light giving blood a red colour
Why are red blood cells bi-concave and why?
Because they have removed all their organelles. To maximise surface area for Oxygen
What is Folate and B12 important for
Cell division and maturing cells
Define Erythropoiesis
Creation of all blood cells in the red bone marrow. Immature erythrocytes have nuclei and organelles as the cells mature they lose the organelles, this is what creates the indent in the cells)
What 3 specific nutrients do we need to synthesise Erythrocytes
B12
Folate (B6)
Iron
EPO is an abbreviation for what
The hormone Erythropoietin
Why is the hormone EPO released; explain the process
Hypoxia stimulates the secretion of the hormone erythropoietin from the kidneys, which stimulates erythropoiesis in the bone marrow.
What can cause Hypoxia
High Altitude, Haemolysis, blood loss and pregnancy
what is the most abundant plasma protein in the blood
Albumin
What is meant by blood plasma
Fluid portion of the blood
List 3 functions of the blood
Transport of waste, transport of Oxygen, nutrients
regulating pH and temperature levels
Immunity
What is meant by erythropoiesis
Production of red blood cells in the bone marrow
Where does Haemolysis Occur
Mainly in the spleen but also the liver
Where are blood group antigens located
in the cell membranes of erythrocytes
What are good sources of Vitamin K1 and K2
K1 = Green leafy veg, tomatoes
K2 = Own gut bacteria or fermented foods best is natto
what does blast refer too
immature cell (only partially differentiated)
What does the suffix Cytosis refer to
more than normal cell numbers
What does the suffix Penia refer too
Lack of cells
Define and describe Leukocytes
White blood cells that defend the body against infection and foreign pathogens they make up 1% of the blood volume, they are nucleated and have 5 parts
Name the 5 parts of Leukocytes and what percentage do they make up.
Neutrophils - 60%
Basophils - 1%
Eosinophils 2-4%
Lymphocytes 30%
Monoscytes - 6 %
What are the primary functions and mode of action of Neutrophils.
When would we tend to see Neutrophils raised?
Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cell and account for 60%
Primary Function - Phagocytosis
Mode of Action - Phagocytosis, 1st on the the site of injury/inflammation less than 1 hour.
Release ROS = Reactive Oxygen Species
Raised - Excessive exercise, smoking infection, tissue damage,inflammation diseases e.g RA
Leukemia
What are the primary functions and mode of action for Eosinophils
When would these levels be raised
Make up 2-4 %
Anti-parasite cells
Functions - Eliminate parasites
Modulation of hypersensitivity reactions (allergies)
Mode of Action - Phagocytosis
Release proteins that have anti- parasitic effect
Migrate to site of injury
Raised - Parasitic infections, allergies atopic asthma
What are the primary functions of Monocytes
Monocytes - in the blood make up 6%
In tissues monocytes are called macrophages they are the largest
Primary function - Ultimate Phagocytosis
Antigen presentation
Mode of function - Phagocytosis
Releases cytokines e.g Interleukin 1 which promotes fever which activates T cells
Primary function of Lymphocytes and mode of action
Primary functions:
Include - B cells T Cells and Natural Killer cells (NK)
Abundant in blood and lymphatic tissue where B and T cells are critical for specific antigens and the production of immunological memory.
Mode of action - T cells directly kill specific invading pathogens. NK Cells kill all cells but do this non-specifically.
B Lymphocytes - Produce antibodies (Immunoglobins) to produce an immune response
Describe a mast cell
Is a sac called a granule which contains histamine and Heparin
What is Heparin
Anti coagulant
What does histamine do
It dilates the blood vessels allowing them to become more permeable allowing for more WBC’s to get to the site.
What is Antigen presentation and where does it happen
creating a marker/identity and passing on to the T Lymphocytes so they can launch a targeted attack on the pathogen
What happens in Haemolysis
When an Erythrocyte has reached the end of it’s life cycle (90-120 days) it undergoes Haemolysis. 1% of our cells breakdown each day.
Haemolysis is carried out by macrophages (phagocytic cells) mainly found in tissues especially the spleen, bone marrow and liver
The globlin amino acids and iron are recycled.
The waste product from Haemolysis is Bilirubin, which is formed in the spleen it is then carried to the liver where the liver breaks down bilirubin and it is conjugated so it can be effectively excreted through the GIT and in faeces (staining brown.
What does conjugated mean
for example Bilirubin in the liver must be conjugated (bound to glucuronic acid) for it to be effectively excreted in the GIT
What is the chemical symbol for Iron
FE+3
What type of Iron do we measure in an Iron blood test
We use Ferratin (storage form of Iron) we don’t use Free Iron
What 4 vitamins are fat soluble
A, D E & K
What is vitamin K responsible for
It s a fat soluble vitamin that is responsible for making 4 clotting factors
Name to Phagocytes
Neutrophils and Macrophages
State number of clotting factors found in the body
13
When blood vessels are damaged and collagen is exposed what substance is released that triggers vascoconstriction
Thromboxane
Describe the function of Vitamin K
Responsible for the production/synthesis of 4 clotting factors
List 3 causes of Iron Deficiency Anaemia
Deficient dietary intake
Malabsorption - due to low stomach acid, coeliac crohns
Excessive blood loss
What are the signs of general anaemia
Shortness of breath on exertion, palpitations, irritability, pallor, fatigue
What is meant by Megaloblastic Anaemia
Large, immature dysfunctional red blood cells that are unable to carry the amount of oxygen they need
What is meant by Leukopenia? Give 2 causes
reduced amount of Leukocytes (WBC;s)
Drugs - Chemo Radiation
Bone marrow disease
Infection e.g EBV HIV Hepatitis
B12/Folate deficiency
What is meant by Leukaemia
A group of bone marrow cancers. Characterised by an abnormal over production of Leukocytes
What is the most abundant plasma protein in the blood?
Albumin
Where does Haemolysis Occur
In the spleen
Where are blood group antigens located
In the cell membrane of erythrocytes
What blood group is considered universal donor and why
0 - has has no antigens for any antibodies to react with
What are the sources of Vitamin K1 and K2
K1 = Tomatoes, green leafy veg
K2 - Fermented foods such
State one function of macrophages
Phagocytosis
State the role of thromboxane in clotting
