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Evolutionary Ecology > SimUtext > Flashcards

SimUtext Flashcards

1
Q

a unit of heredity information that codes for a product such as a protein

A

gene

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2
Q

alternate versions of a gene

A

alleles

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3
Q
  • such as humans
  • two copies of each gene inheriting one from each parent
A

diploid organisms

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4
Q

an organisms whose two copies are the same allele is what for that gene

A

homozygous

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5
Q

an individual with two different alleles

A

heterozygous

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6
Q

certain genotypes are associated with higher or lower what, depending on the local environment of the individual organism

A

fitness

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7
Q

refers to how successfully an individual passes their genes to future generations

A

fitness

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8
Q

What occurs when the heterozygous genotype for a particular gene confers higher fitness than do homozygous genotypes

A

heterozygote advantage

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9
Q

What three conditions must be met for evolution by natural selection to occur?

A
  • there must be variation within the population
  • the mechanism that creates the variation within the population
  • the variation must lead to differences in fitness
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10
Q

an inherited disease in which people produce malformed red blood cells that are sickle-shaped instead of disc-shaped, despite high mortality this persists in some areas

A

sickle-cell disease

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11
Q

a deadly mosquito-borne disease in which humans red blood cells are invaded by a protozoan parasite

A

malaria

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12
Q

sickle-cell disease occurs when a person is homozygous for the sickle-cell allele (HbS) of what gene

A

hemoglobin

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13
Q

Individuals with what genotype have increased fitness in environments where malaria is common

A

HbA/HbS

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14
Q

New alleles are created through what

A

random mutations of DNA

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15
Q

the persistence of a new allele in a population depends in part on the degree to which the allele confers a what which may depend on the local environment

A

fitness advantage

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16
Q

a mechanism of evolution in which random events affect the frequency of alleles in a population

A

genetic drift

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17
Q

What two mechanism are not mutually exclusive

A

genetic drift and natural selection

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18
Q

when the relative fitness of a particular genotype is high what may have a larger effect on allele frequency than what

A
  • natural selection
  • genetic drift
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19
Q

Genetic drift follows the rules of what and thus the size of a population influences the effect that genetic drift can have
- in small populations a particulars alleles frequency is more likely to become fixed and either disappear entirely or become the only allele circulating in the population
- in large populations allele frequency tend to remain relatively stable over time

A

probability

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20
Q

a population in what is not evolving meaning its allele frequencies are remaining constant

A

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

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21
Q

For HWE to occur what conditions must be met?

A
  • no natural selection, all genotypes are equally adaptive
  • no genetic drift, randomness is not a factor
  • mutation
  • no migration
  • random mating, offspring genotypes are random combinations of parental alleles
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22
Q

used to predict allele and genotype frequencies for a gene with two alleles in a population in this

A

HWE

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23
Q

What symbols represent the frequency of the two different alleles

A

p and q

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24
Q

What is the HWE equation

A

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

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25
Q

the frequency of individuals that are homozygous for the first allele

A

p^2

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26
Q

the frequency of heterozygous individuals

A

2pq

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27
Q

the frequency of individuals that are heterozygous for the other allele

A

q^2

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28
Q

HWE is a what that describes expected genotype frequencies in a population that is not undergoing evolution
- simplified systems describing expectations without influencing factors
- useful because they allow you to generate and test alternative hypotheses which posit that something interesting such as evolution is happening

A

Null Model

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29
Q

How can scientist test if evolution is occurring in a particular gene

A

they can measure the genotype frequencies in a population and compare the frequencies to those predicted by the HWE

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30
Q

if the difference between observed and expected frequencies is statistically significant the null hypothesis can be what which is used as evidence that the population is evolving

A

rejected

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31
Q

Use of simulated populations and the HW null model suggest that if malaria were to be eradicated the what associated with the sickle cell allele HbS would disappear and there would be strong selection against HbS unless sickle-cell disease were also effectively eradicated

A

heterozygote advantage

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32
Q

a change in the genetic composition of a population from one generation to the next

A

evolution

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33
Q

What two things are intertwined

A

evolution and ecology

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34
Q

Evolution is often facilitated by what and the resulting impacts can be ecologically important

A

ecological processes

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35
Q

What are the four mechanisms of evolution

A
  • mutation
  • natural selection
  • migration
  • genetic drift
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36
Q

What mechanisms are not exclusive of each other and often act simultaneously

A

evolution mechanisms

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37
Q

evolution by what happens when individuals with certain traits survive and reproduce at higher rates than others

A

natural selection

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38
Q

numerous examples from laboratories and natural populations demonstrate that substantial evolution in ecologically relevant traits does what

A

can happen rapidly, sometimes in just a few generations

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39
Q

traits associated with what become common

A

survival and reproduction

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40
Q

traits associated with what become rare

A

early death and reproductive failure

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41
Q

What theory applies to any population in which the requirements are met

A

natural selection

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42
Q

The theory of evolution can be framed in the language of what

A

modern genetics

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43
Q

evolution can be defined as change in what across generations or among populations

A

allele frequencies

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44
Q

When there are differences in phenotype that are at least partly due to differences in genotype and some phenotypes have higher what than others, then allele frequencies automatically change

A

fitness

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45
Q

Alleles associated with what become common

A

high fitness

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46
Q

Alleles associated with what disappear

A

low fitness

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47
Q

Allele frequencies may also change across generations due to what which is evolution by genetic drift

A

purely random events that result in sampling error

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48
Q

a form of genetic drift that occurs when a few individuals from a source population establish a new population, usually the allele frequencies will be different in the new population than they are in the source population

A

Founder effect

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49
Q

What also occurs when individuals migrate from one population to another, if the migration alters allele frequencies in one or the other population

A

evolution

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50
Q

What can create new alleles in a population which changes allele frequencies across generation which leads to evolution

A

genetic mutation

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51
Q

What do not act exclusively of each other

A

the four mechanisms of evolution

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52
Q

In what evolution can occur via any combination of mechanisms acting simultaneously

A

natural populations

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53
Q

Understanding the mechanism of what helps researchers and farmers devise ways to control crop pests like the pink bollworm without encouraging rapid evolution of resistance

A

decent with modification

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54
Q

What populations evolve resistance to Bt toxins because normally rare resistant genotypes enjoy much higher fitness than susceptible genotypes on Bollgard cotton

A

Pink Bollworm

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55
Q

What uses fields planted with patches of Bollgard and patches of normal cotton

A

The high-dose/refuge strategy

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56
Q

What is well protected against bollworms

A

Bollgard cotton

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57
Q

The normal cotton allows susceptible bollworms to survive reducing what

A

the fitness advantage associated with resistance

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58
Q

The evolution of antibiotic resistance in populations of disease causing bacteria is what

A

a major health concern

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59
Q

What is ongoing but is unlikely to be a long term solution to the problem

A

The development of novel antibiotics

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60
Q

Other strategies are needed to help reduce the evolution of resistance in what

A

pathogenic bacteria

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61
Q

When resources are limited individuals must do what

A

compete

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62
Q

the complete set of conditions under which an organism could potentially survive and reproduce

A

fundamental niche

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63
Q

the subset of the fundamental niche describing the conditions under which an organism actually lives given limitations created by interactions with other species

A

realized niche

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64
Q

What states that no two species can coexist in exactly the same niche

A

competitive exclusion principle

65
Q

occurs when individuals compete by consuming a shared resource

A

indirect or resource competition

66
Q

What does direct or interference competition include

A

allelopathy, territoriality, preemption

67
Q

occurs when plants release chemicals that inhibit the growth of their competitors

A

allelopathy

68
Q

describes the establishment by an organism or group of a defended area from which others are excluded

A

territoriality

69
Q

occurs when individuals prevent others from using a location by occupying it first

A

preemption

70
Q

competition for resources among individuals of the same species

A

intraspecific competition

71
Q

When resources are unlimited individuals in a population will not compete and the population will be able to grow how

A

exponentially at its intrinsic rate of growth

72
Q

As population density increases intraspecific competition does what reducing the health of individuals in the population

A

increases

73
Q

When resource limitation is such that a populations birth rate and death rate are equal the population is said to be at its what

A

carrying capacity

74
Q

a simple model of population growth in the presence of a limited resource

A

logistic growth equation

75
Q

competition for resources among individuals of different species

A

interspecific competition

76
Q

What equations can be used to model competition between populations of two species

A

Lotka-Volterra

77
Q

instantaneous population growth rates

A

dN1/dt and dN2/dt

78
Q

per capita intrinsic growth rates

A

r1 and r2

79
Q

population sizes

A

N1 and N2

80
Q

carrying capacity with subscripts

A

K1 and K2

81
Q

what are alpha 12 and alpha 21

A

competition coefficients

82
Q

describes the per capita of one species on population growth of the other

A

competition coefficients

83
Q

viewed in phase plane and provide a graphical way of determining the possible outcomes of competition between two species

A

the isoclines of zero population growth for lotka-volterra competition equations

84
Q

The lotka volterra competition equations predict that species can only coexist if what is stronger than what

A

intraspecific competition is stronger than interspecific competition

85
Q

What are frequently violated in the real world and what does it lead to

A

the assumptions of lotka volterra equations and it leads to more complex outcomes

86
Q

Numerous field studies have shown what is more important in natural settings

A

competition

87
Q

some species are more likely to be what by competition than others

A

strongly affected

88
Q

What of competition can vary among environments for example a can beat be in wet environments but b could beat a in dry environments

A

strength and outcome

89
Q

There may be what in adapting optimally to different environments

A

trade-offs

90
Q

What can lead to character displacement reducing the strength of competition between species

A

interspecific competition

91
Q

other types of interactions between species can reduce what

A

the degree of competition within or between species

92
Q

What is a key goal of epidemiology

A

to understand how infectious disease spread through populations

93
Q

diverse and employ various strategies for infecting and growing within their hosts which provide diverse environments for them

A

pathogens

94
Q

occurs when a pathogen invades a host and then the pathogen population grows to the point where the pathogen can be transmitted to a new host generally the host is harmed in this process

A

infection

95
Q

What do human pathogens include

A

viruses bacteria fungi protozans and helminths

96
Q

What typically target cellular structures and functions that are unique to the pathogen type so that the hosts cells are not harmed

A

natural and human made substances that fight infection

97
Q

Human hosts defend against pathogens with two types of what

A

immune system response

98
Q

includes barriers to entry and internal defenses is rapid and targets broad classes of pathogens

A

innate immune response

99
Q

slower but more specific targeting particular pathogens immune system learns to remembers the pathogens its been exposed to so subsequent responses are much more rapid

A

acquired immune response

100
Q

epidemiologists use models of disease spread to help understand disease dynamics and to predict the impacts of what

A

epidemics

101
Q

the spread of disease in a population can be modeled by considering what happens to three categories of individuals which includes the susceptible, infected, and recovered

A

SIR model

102
Q

What factors affect how fast a disease will spread and how many individuals will become infected

A

population density (N) transmission rate (B) and infectious period (L)

103
Q

diseases basic reproductive number

A

R0

104
Q

describes how many individuals an infected individual is expected to infect in a population of susceptible individuals, it is specific to the pathogen the host population and the environment

A

diseases basic reproductive number

105
Q

R0 can be estimated as what

A

R0 = SBL

106
Q

When can an epidemic take hold in a population

A

when R0 is greater than 1

107
Q

although it is useful for many applications the basic SIR model often oversimplifies actual what however extensions to the model can improve realism

A

disease transmission

108
Q

What cause the composition of most populations to change over time

A

births adn deaths

109
Q

newborns lack immunity so births increase what which facilitate the ocurrence of disease cycles such as with measles in unvacinated human populations

A

the number of susceptible individuals overtime

110
Q

occurs when a sufficient number individuals in a population are immune to a disease such that the disease will not spread through the population this can be achieved through vaccination or with immunity from previous exposure to the pathogen

A

herd immunity

111
Q

pc is the minimum proportion of the population that must be immune in order to achieve herd immunity this threshold is related to the diseases basic reproduction number r0

A

critical immunization threshold

112
Q

A higher value of R0 means what

A

that more individuals must be immune to prevent an epidemic

113
Q

can slow the spread of disease, they are particularly useful when vaccines and drugs are not availiable

A

community mitigation strategies

114
Q

What are some strategies that reduce the frequency of contact between susceptible and infected people

A

social distancing and quarantines

115
Q

What lower the risk of transmission when a susceptible person contacts an infected one

A

wearing masks hand washing and condom use

116
Q

community mitigation strategies can what

A

flatten the curve

117
Q

What are two key benefits of flattening the curve

A
  • reducing the number of infected people at the peak of an epidemic prevents health care systems from being overwhelmed
  • delaying the timing of the epidemic peak allows for health care systems to build capacity and for researchers to develop new treatments
118
Q

What are example of directly transmitted epidemics

A

covid and HIV/AIDS

119
Q

What are examples of indirectly transmitted epidemics

A

giardia, dysentery from salmonella, and bubonic plague

120
Q

occurs through person to person contact and includes diseases like colds covid and STDS

A

direct disease transmission

121
Q

involves an intermediate agent, the agent may be inanimate as when dirty water spreads diseases like cholera, the agents may also be animate vectors

A

indirect disease transmission

122
Q

What can adapt SIR models to describe the transmission of vector borne diseases like malaria by adding compartments that represent susceptible and infected individuals in the vector population

A

epidemiologists

123
Q

may be infected themselves as with malaria or they may simply spread the disease by carrying pathogens without infected

A

vectors

124
Q

What is a vector borne disease caused by the plasmodium parasite a protozoan, an epidemic in many parts of the world

A

malaria

125
Q

requires both human and mosquito hosts provides multiple opportunities to disrupt transmission

A

plasmodium’s complex life cycle

126
Q

What creates challenges for controlling their spread

A

the fact that vector borne diseases are transmitted by non human organisms

127
Q

all of what evolve over time

A

pathogens

128
Q

What are the mechanisms that evolve pathogen evolution

A

mutations, heritable traits, natural selection, genetic drift, and reassortment

129
Q

these often result either from spillover of a new virus from an animal population or from the creation of new strains through reassortment

A

pandemics

130
Q

What do pathogens benefit by

A

effectively using the hosts resources to grow and reproduce which causes harm and can kill the host possibly before the pathogen spreads to a new host

131
Q

pathogen evolution is influenced by

A

trade-offs

132
Q

a critical environment variable that predictably influences biological processes at a range of scales from enzymes to species

A

temperature

133
Q

many biological processes vary as described by a hump-shaped

A

temperature performance curve

134
Q

peaks at an optimal temperature

A

performance

135
Q

define the limits of performance called the tolerance range

A

the minimum and maximum temperatures

136
Q

temperature often determines performance because it influences chemical reaction rates especially those that are controlled by what

A

enzymes

137
Q

for many taxonomic groups species richness is correlated with what

A

mean annual temperature

138
Q

ecologists are concerned that what will have increasingly dramatic impacts on Earth’s biota because of the relationship between temperature adn performance

A

climate change

139
Q

describes the short term behavior of the atmosphere

A

weather

140
Q

describes its long term behavior over 30 years or more

A

climate

141
Q

changes in climate are easier to detect when what which is why scientists often focus on changes in global means rather than on noisier local trends

A

signal to noise ratio is high and or data sets span a long period

142
Q

show that during the last 30 years the northern hemisphere was warmer than during any other 30 year period in at least 800 years and probably 2000 years

A

proxy data

143
Q

which includes reduced Arctic sea ice glacial retreat and reduced spring snow cover

A

cryosphere

144
Q

altered bringing more frequent and severe doughts as well as more frequent and or intense storms

A

precipitation patterns

145
Q

due to both thermal expansion and the addition of water from melting snow and ice

A

sea levels

146
Q

over the past 40 years this has increased

A

heat energy stored in oceans

147
Q

have been documented across most of the US due largely to earlier springs

A

longer growing seasons

148
Q

reflect our current understanding of climate and allow scientists to test hypotheses about factors affecting it

A

models

149
Q

A plants equilibrium surface temperature can be predicted from simple black body climate model that accounts for what

A

solar output, distance from the sun, albedo, and greenhouse gases

150
Q

energy is emitted by the sun which varies over time

A

solar output

151
Q

determines the amount of solar radiation energy intercepted by the plant

A

distance from the sun

152
Q

the proportion of incident solar radiation that is reflected by the planet

A

albedo

153
Q

produce the greenhouse effect further warming the surface of a planet with atmospheres containing them

A

greenhouse gases

154
Q

What describe non equilibrium and incorporate climate feedbacks, some feedbacks like ice albedo are positive amplifying the effects of climate change while others like cloud albedo are negative dampening the effect of climate change

A

more complex climate models

155
Q

why is teh climate warming

A

the earths global energy budget is currently out of balance is absorbs about 0.6 W/m^2 more energy than it radiates

156
Q

more complex accounting for the effect of earths curved surface rotation and topography they are driven by coupled models of the atmosphere and ocean and they incorporate sea ice aerosols and biogeochemical cycles

A

Global Climate Models (GCMs)

157
Q

both natural and anthropogenic forcing’s have the potential to drive

A

climate change

158
Q

climate change is affecting species in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems

A

across the globe

159
Q

Changes in what are altering the structure and function of many ecosystems

A

temperature and precipitation

Evolutionary Ecology (4 decks)

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